100. Medical Transcription
Medical transcription, also known as MT, is an allied health profession, which deals in the process of transcription, or converting voice-recorded reports as dictated by physicians and/or other healthcare professionals into text format. Medical transcription is the process of converting / typing health care professionals dictated notes into written transcripts. Medical transcription is the act of translating from oral to printed form (on paper or computer) the record of patient's medical history and treatment. It is mandatory and legally binding on the health care professionals to hardcopy any type of medical treatment, procedure, diagnostic test, etc. and it must be documented into a patient's permanent medical record. The patient information is dictated by health professional into a digital or analog recorder and/or through the use of a phone dictation system.
Basic MT knowledge, skills and abilities: Knowledge of basic to advanced medical terminology is essential. Average verbal communication skills. Above-average memory skills. Ability to sort, check, count, and verify numbers with accuracy. Demonstrated skill in the use and operation of basic office equipment/computer. Ability to follow verbal and written instructions. Records maintenance skills or ability. Above-average typing skills. Knowledge and experience transcribing (from training or real report work) in the Basic Four work types. Knowledge of and proper application of grammar. Knowledge of and use of correct punctuation and capitalization rules. Demonstrated MT proficiencies in multiple report types and multiple specialties.
Medical transcription is challenging, but it is also very rewarding. Medical Transcriptionists are an integral part of the healthcare industry; they are active participants in the care-giving process. Medical Transcription is also a skill which continues to teach. With every new medical specialty, with every new medical procedure, with every new disease or treatment program, the medical transcriptionist is constantly learning. Likewise, professional medical transcriptionists are ALWAYS in demand, because people will continue to need medical care throughout their lives.
Medical Transcriptionist uses a computer and their favorite word processor to transcribe this information into a typed document. These typed documents either in hardcopy or softcopy are then forwarded to the dictator for verification and approval. After approval these signed documents become part of a patient's permanent medical record. These documents can be Initial Evaluation / Consultation, Progress Note, Follow-up Visit, Reassessment Sheet, Psychological Test, 6-month Psychological Evaluation, Letter, Lab/Test Results, SOAP Note, Nutritional Assessment, Preoperative Assessment, Postoperative Assessment, Workmen's Comp, Telephone Conversation, Treatment Plan Summary, Completion Note, History & Physical examination, Discharge Summary etc.
Sunday, March 1, 2009
99. Graphics Designer
Graphics (from Greek γραφικός; see -graphy) are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Examples are photographs, drawings, Line Art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style. Graphics can be functional or artistic. The latter can be a recorded version, such as a photograph, or an interpretation by a scientist to highlight essential features, or an artist, in which case the distinction with imaginary graphics may become blurred.
It's common for people in conversation to routinely use the terms "images," "artwork," and "graphics" interchangeably. As instructional designers, it is very important to recognize that those terms mean different things and that those differences have a profound effect on what type of people have to be involved, what technical resources are required, and what kind of time frame is necessary for production. It's also important to recognize that all visual support material does not fit neatly into these definitions. The edges of each category blend together in a continuum. Furthermore, these definitions are not universally recognized. That said, most people, most of the time will understand the distinctions you are making when using these terms. When we talk about images, we are talking about digital photography. Whether it is on-the-scene documentation of events or studio setups both involve capturing less than a second's worth of the real world (with some notable exceptions) in real-time. Volumes have been written about the professional photographer's "eye" or ability to be at the right place and time. This method for producing visual support material is nevertheless the most rapid and easiest to accomplish (assuming you have made the financial investment in equipment of adequate quality for the application.).
Graphics (also called illustrations or artwork) form a fundamental part of multimedia materials, be they pictures, drawings, diagrams, charts, graphs, photographs, paintings, cartoons, or maps. Indeed, one would be hard pressed to attach the label "multimedia" to an instructional program that doesn't contain any graphics. Graphics are the overarching "containers" for artwork, and/or digital photographic images assembled into a single presentation area to support the conveyance of a message or the creation of an impression. The range of element types, and infinite combinations of those elements pose a potential stumbling block in production time, but good element cataloging, and judicious element creation can mean rapid development times with a minimum of creative effort, greater cost efficiency (through repurposing), and greater flexibility in meeting instructional requirements. Artwork is the term we use to describe two dimensional visual support materials that is drawn, painted or otherwise assembled from abstract components (e.g., polygons) into meaningful information. These items require the most talent to accomplish, the most technical skill to execute, and take the longest to produce.
Until recently, however, graphics have not been used as widely as they might have been in instructional materials because they were expensive to produce and to duplicate, particularly if they used color. The advent of computer-based multimedia development tools has changed that significantly, by putting in the hands of virtually any author the capability of producing graphics that are simple or lavish, full-color or black-and-white. Collections of clip art and stock photographs, and sophisticated graphics production programs, have diminished the need for manual graphic skills. However, producing effective and attractive graphics still isn't a completely straightforward process. Even the most powerful graphics programs can be used to produce ugly and ineffective graphics (and if the World Wide Web is any indication, they most certainly are!)
98. Extensible Markup Language (XML)
XML is a text-based markup language that is fast becoming the standard for data interchange on the Web. It is classified as an extensible language, because it allows the user to define the mark-up elements. XML's purpose is to aid information systems in sharing structured data, especially via the Internet, to encode documents, and to serialize data; in the last context, it compares with text-based serialization languages such as JSON, YAML and S-Expressions. As with HTML, you identify data using tags (identifiers enclosed in angle brackets, like this: <...>). Collectively, the tags are known as "markup". But unlike HTML, XML tags tell you what the data means, rather than how to display it. Where an HTML tag says something like "display this data in bold font" (...), an XML tag acts like a field name in your program. It puts a label on a piece of data that identifies it (for example:... ).
XML is an open, text-based markup language that provides structural and semantic information to data. This "data about data," or metadata, provides additional meaning and context to the application using the data and allows for a new level of management and manipulation of Web-based information. XML, a subset of the popular Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), has been optimized for the Web. This helps make XML a powerful, standards-based complement to HTML that could be as important to the future of information delivery on the Web as HTML was to its beginning. XML is intended to be used by content creators as well as by programmers. Since XML is text-based, it can be read and worked with easily in relatively nontechnical situations, but its ability to organize, describe, and structure data also makes it ideal for use in highly technical applications. XML thus provides common ground for creating structured data and making it available for manipulation and display.
XML provides a basic syntax that can be used to share information between different kinds of computers, different applications, and different organizations. XML data is stored in plain text format. This software- and hardware-independent way of storing data allows different incompatible systems to share data without needing to pass them through many layers of conversion. This also makes it easier to expand or upgrade to new operating systems, new applications, or new browsers, without losing any data. With XML, your data can be available to all kinds of "reading machines" (Handheld computers, voice machines, news feeds, etc), and make it more available for blind people, or people with other disabilities. XML provides a gateway for communication between applications, even applications on wildly different systems. As long as applications can share data (through HTTP, file sharing, or another mechanism), and have an XML parser, they can share structured information that is easily processed. Databases can trade tables, business applications can trade updates, and document systems can share information. It supports Unicode, allowing almost any information in any written human language to be communicated.
It can represent common computer science data structures: records, lists and trees. Its self-documenting format describes structure and field names as well as specific values. The strict syntax and parsing requirements make the necessary parsing algorithms extremely simple, efficient, and consistent. Content-based XML markup enhances search ability, making it possible for agents and search engines to categorize data instead of wasting processing power on context-based full-text searches. XML is heavily used as a format for document storage and processing, both online and offline. It is based on international standards. It can be updated incrementally. It allows validation using schema languages such as XSD and Schematron, which makes effective unit-testing, firewalls, acceptance testing, contractual specification and software construction easier. The hierarchical structure is suitable for most (but not all) types of documents. It is platform-independent, thus relatively immune to changes in technology. Forward and backward compatibility are relatively easy to maintain despite changes in DTD or Schema. Its predecessor, SGML, has been in use since 1986, so there is extensive experience and software available.
XML is a text-based markup language that is fast becoming the standard for data interchange on the Web. It is classified as an extensible language, because it allows the user to define the mark-up elements. XML's purpose is to aid information systems in sharing structured data, especially via the Internet, to encode documents, and to serialize data; in the last context, it compares with text-based serialization languages such as JSON, YAML and S-Expressions. As with HTML, you identify data using tags (identifiers enclosed in angle brackets, like this: <...>). Collectively, the tags are known as "markup". But unlike HTML, XML tags tell you what the data means, rather than how to display it. Where an HTML tag says something like "display this data in bold font" (...), an XML tag acts like a field name in your program. It puts a label on a piece of data that identifies it (for example:
XML is an open, text-based markup language that provides structural and semantic information to data. This "data about data," or metadata, provides additional meaning and context to the application using the data and allows for a new level of management and manipulation of Web-based information. XML, a subset of the popular Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), has been optimized for the Web. This helps make XML a powerful, standards-based complement to HTML that could be as important to the future of information delivery on the Web as HTML was to its beginning. XML is intended to be used by content creators as well as by programmers. Since XML is text-based, it can be read and worked with easily in relatively nontechnical situations, but its ability to organize, describe, and structure data also makes it ideal for use in highly technical applications. XML thus provides common ground for creating structured data and making it available for manipulation and display.
XML provides a basic syntax that can be used to share information between different kinds of computers, different applications, and different organizations. XML data is stored in plain text format. This software- and hardware-independent way of storing data allows different incompatible systems to share data without needing to pass them through many layers of conversion. This also makes it easier to expand or upgrade to new operating systems, new applications, or new browsers, without losing any data. With XML, your data can be available to all kinds of "reading machines" (Handheld computers, voice machines, news feeds, etc), and make it more available for blind people, or people with other disabilities. XML provides a gateway for communication between applications, even applications on wildly different systems. As long as applications can share data (through HTTP, file sharing, or another mechanism), and have an XML parser, they can share structured information that is easily processed. Databases can trade tables, business applications can trade updates, and document systems can share information. It supports Unicode, allowing almost any information in any written human language to be communicated.
It can represent common computer science data structures: records, lists and trees. Its self-documenting format describes structure and field names as well as specific values. The strict syntax and parsing requirements make the necessary parsing algorithms extremely simple, efficient, and consistent. Content-based XML markup enhances search ability, making it possible for agents and search engines to categorize data instead of wasting processing power on context-based full-text searches. XML is heavily used as a format for document storage and processing, both online and offline. It is based on international standards. It can be updated incrementally. It allows validation using schema languages such as XSD and Schematron, which makes effective unit-testing, firewalls, acceptance testing, contractual specification and software construction easier. The hierarchical structure is suitable for most (but not all) types of documents. It is platform-independent, thus relatively immune to changes in technology. Forward and backward compatibility are relatively easy to maintain despite changes in DTD or Schema. Its predecessor, SGML, has been in use since 1986, so there is extensive experience and software available.
97. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HyperText Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, is the underlying and primary communications protocol used by the World Wide Web (WWW); other Internet protocols include File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Gopher, and Telnet. HTTP is the protocol used in the transfer of HyperText Markup Language (HTML) files and stands at the very core of the World Wide Web. HTTP and HTML are closely linked; one defines connectivity, the other defines interface. HTTP is the transport or transfer protocol offering the base method by which all clients (meaning your Web browser program installed on your computer) and servers (the Web server hosting a Web site displayed in your browser) communicate with each other. HTML, on the other hand, is the base standard by which content is formatted and displayed effectively in Web pages in browsers. The communications protocol used to connect to Web servers on the Internet or on a local network (intranet). Its primary function is to establish a connection with the server and send HTML pages back to the user's browser. It is also used to download files from the server either to the browser or to any other requesting application that uses HTTP.
As the transport protocol, HTTP defines how information is formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers take in response to commands you send over the Internet. For example, when you enter a URL, or Uniform Resource Locator, in the "Location" or "Address" field of your browser, you are sending an HTTP command to the Web server (which hosts that URL or Web site), directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page with its various media embedded--text, graphics, audio, or video. The HTTP protocol uses the concept of reference provided by the Universal Resource Identifier as a Location (URL) or Name (URN). When a hyperlink is composed in HTML, the URL uses the general form http://host:port-number/path/file.html. In HTTP/0.9 and 1.0, the connection is closed after a single request/response pair. In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was introduced, where a connection could be reused for more than one request. Such persistent connections reduce lag perceptibly, because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP connection after the first request has been sent.
HTTP is a "stateless" request/response system. The connection is maintained between client and server only for the immediate request, and the connection is closed. After the HTTP client establishes a TCP connection with the server and sends it a request command, the server sends back its response and closes the connection. The first version of HTTP caused considerable overhead. Each time a graphics file on the page was requested, a new protocol connection had to be established between the browser and the server. In HTTP Version 1.1, multiple files could be downloaded with the same connection. It also improved caching and made it easier to create virtual hosts (multiple Web sites on the same server). Methods PUT and DELETE are defined to be idempotent, meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request. Methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS and TRACE, being prescribed as safe, should also be idempotent. HTTP is a stateless protocol.
By contrast, the POST method is not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further affect state or cause further side effects (such as financial transactions). In some cases this may be desirable, but in other cases this could be due to an accident, such as when a user does not realize that their action will result in sending another request, or they did not receive adequate feedback that their first request was successful. While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to takes responsibility for handling cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once. Note that whether a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server. It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request. Ignoring this recommendation, however, may result in undesirable consequences if a user agent assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it isn't.
HyperText Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, is the underlying and primary communications protocol used by the World Wide Web (WWW); other Internet protocols include File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Gopher, and Telnet. HTTP is the protocol used in the transfer of HyperText Markup Language (HTML) files and stands at the very core of the World Wide Web. HTTP and HTML are closely linked; one defines connectivity, the other defines interface. HTTP is the transport or transfer protocol offering the base method by which all clients (meaning your Web browser program installed on your computer) and servers (the Web server hosting a Web site displayed in your browser) communicate with each other. HTML, on the other hand, is the base standard by which content is formatted and displayed effectively in Web pages in browsers. The communications protocol used to connect to Web servers on the Internet or on a local network (intranet). Its primary function is to establish a connection with the server and send HTML pages back to the user's browser. It is also used to download files from the server either to the browser or to any other requesting application that uses HTTP.
As the transport protocol, HTTP defines how information is formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers take in response to commands you send over the Internet. For example, when you enter a URL, or Uniform Resource Locator, in the "Location" or "Address" field of your browser, you are sending an HTTP command to the Web server (which hosts that URL or Web site), directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page with its various media embedded--text, graphics, audio, or video. The HTTP protocol uses the concept of reference provided by the Universal Resource Identifier as a Location (URL) or Name (URN). When a hyperlink is composed in HTML, the URL uses the general form http://host:port-number/path/file.html. In HTTP/0.9 and 1.0, the connection is closed after a single request/response pair. In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was introduced, where a connection could be reused for more than one request. Such persistent connections reduce lag perceptibly, because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP connection after the first request has been sent.
HTTP is a "stateless" request/response system. The connection is maintained between client and server only for the immediate request, and the connection is closed. After the HTTP client establishes a TCP connection with the server and sends it a request command, the server sends back its response and closes the connection. The first version of HTTP caused considerable overhead. Each time a graphics file on the page was requested, a new protocol connection had to be established between the browser and the server. In HTTP Version 1.1, multiple files could be downloaded with the same connection. It also improved caching and made it easier to create virtual hosts (multiple Web sites on the same server). Methods PUT and DELETE are defined to be idempotent, meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request. Methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS and TRACE, being prescribed as safe, should also be idempotent. HTTP is a stateless protocol.
By contrast, the POST method is not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further affect state or cause further side effects (such as financial transactions). In some cases this may be desirable, but in other cases this could be due to an accident, such as when a user does not realize that their action will result in sending another request, or they did not receive adequate feedback that their first request was successful. While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to takes responsibility for handling cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once. Note that whether a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server. It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request. Ignoring this recommendation, however, may result in undesirable consequences if a user agent assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it isn't.
96. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
The concept of ERP seems to have evaluated way back in the 1960, but its name – ERP was born around 1972. The ERP was the vision of a group of ex-IBM managers. They then formed a company, which today stands tall, SAP. Over the years ERP has undergone a lot of changes, yet the basic concept of integration remains the same. Taking one word at a time ERP will literally mean Enterprise – an undertaking, especially one with some scope, complication and risk. Resource – something that can be used as a support or help. Planning – A scheme program or method worked out beforehand for accomplishment of an objective. ERP software aids and controls the ERP management system, which is a system that integrates and automates all facets of business operations. This includes planning, manufacturing, and sales, while more recent ERP software products encompass marketing, inventory control, order tracking, customer service, finance and human resources as well.
Of the three words the word enterprise has more relevance with the other two trying to add importance. But ERP is always defined focusing on its role to integrate. ERP integrates the entire operations of any organization. In simple terminology ERP is software which can be used by both small and big organizations to integrate all its operations across departments. There was a time when ERP was a word of nightmares, when ERP was 'walking on landmines' and ERP was meant only for the 'big and the rich' companies. But today the benefits are understood, talked about. We have a number of small players entering into the ERP race. We have a number of ERP products to meet needs of even the SMEs we even have vertical ERPs.
In the absence of an ERP system, a large manufacturer may find itself with many software applications that neither talk to each other nor interface effectively. Tasks that need to interface with one another may involve: Integration among different functional areas to ensure proper communication, productivity and efficiency. Design engineering (how to best make the product). Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment. The revenue cycle, from invoice through cash receipt. Managing inter-dependencies of complex processes bill of materials. Tracking the three-way match between purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced). The accounting for all of these tasks: tracking the revenue, cost and profit at a granular level.
Some security features are included within an ERP system to protect against both outsider crime, such as industrial espionage, and insider crime, such as embezzlement. A data-tampering scenario, for example, might involve a disgruntled employee intentionally modifying prices to below-the-breakeven point in order to attempt to interfere with the company's profit or other sabotage. ERP systems typically provide functionality for implementing internal controls to prevent actions of this kind. ERP vendors are also moving toward better integration with other kinds of information security tools.
No matter which ERP system you ultimately choose, how do you know you're making the *right* choice for your company? No two manufacturers run exactly the same way, and similarly no two ERP systems run exactly the same way. So, it’s critical to research the product and the vendor to ensure that you select the right system for your business. You've got to have a system that fully integrates all aspects of running your manufacturing business, offers advanced features and options but is intuitive and easy to use, and adapts to the way you do business rather than forcing you to adapt to the software. With ERP, you’re buying more than just a software package. You’re engaging in a long-term relationship with a business partner that will have a huge impact on the future of your company. The more time you spend in the research process, the better your chances of selecting the best ERP product and the right partner for your business.
The concept of ERP seems to have evaluated way back in the 1960, but its name – ERP was born around 1972. The ERP was the vision of a group of ex-IBM managers. They then formed a company, which today stands tall, SAP. Over the years ERP has undergone a lot of changes, yet the basic concept of integration remains the same. Taking one word at a time ERP will literally mean Enterprise – an undertaking, especially one with some scope, complication and risk. Resource – something that can be used as a support or help. Planning – A scheme program or method worked out beforehand for accomplishment of an objective. ERP software aids and controls the ERP management system, which is a system that integrates and automates all facets of business operations. This includes planning, manufacturing, and sales, while more recent ERP software products encompass marketing, inventory control, order tracking, customer service, finance and human resources as well.
Of the three words the word enterprise has more relevance with the other two trying to add importance. But ERP is always defined focusing on its role to integrate. ERP integrates the entire operations of any organization. In simple terminology ERP is software which can be used by both small and big organizations to integrate all its operations across departments. There was a time when ERP was a word of nightmares, when ERP was 'walking on landmines' and ERP was meant only for the 'big and the rich' companies. But today the benefits are understood, talked about. We have a number of small players entering into the ERP race. We have a number of ERP products to meet needs of even the SMEs we even have vertical ERPs.
In the absence of an ERP system, a large manufacturer may find itself with many software applications that neither talk to each other nor interface effectively. Tasks that need to interface with one another may involve: Integration among different functional areas to ensure proper communication, productivity and efficiency. Design engineering (how to best make the product). Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment. The revenue cycle, from invoice through cash receipt. Managing inter-dependencies of complex processes bill of materials. Tracking the three-way match between purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced). The accounting for all of these tasks: tracking the revenue, cost and profit at a granular level.
Some security features are included within an ERP system to protect against both outsider crime, such as industrial espionage, and insider crime, such as embezzlement. A data-tampering scenario, for example, might involve a disgruntled employee intentionally modifying prices to below-the-breakeven point in order to attempt to interfere with the company's profit or other sabotage. ERP systems typically provide functionality for implementing internal controls to prevent actions of this kind. ERP vendors are also moving toward better integration with other kinds of information security tools.
No matter which ERP system you ultimately choose, how do you know you're making the *right* choice for your company? No two manufacturers run exactly the same way, and similarly no two ERP systems run exactly the same way. So, it’s critical to research the product and the vendor to ensure that you select the right system for your business. You've got to have a system that fully integrates all aspects of running your manufacturing business, offers advanced features and options but is intuitive and easy to use, and adapts to the way you do business rather than forcing you to adapt to the software. With ERP, you’re buying more than just a software package. You’re engaging in a long-term relationship with a business partner that will have a huge impact on the future of your company. The more time you spend in the research process, the better your chances of selecting the best ERP product and the right partner for your business.
95. Software Testing
Software testing is oriented to "detection". It's examining a system or an application under controlled conditions. It's intentionally making things go wrong when they should not and things happen when they should not. Software Testing is an empirical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, with respect to the context in which it is intended to operate. This includes, but is not limited to, the process of executing a program or application with the intent of finding software bugs. Testing involves operation of a system or application under controlled conditions and evaluating the results (eg, 'if the user is in interface A of the application while using hardware B, and does C, then D should happen'). The controlled conditions should include both normal and abnormal conditions. Testing should intentionally attempt to make things go wrong to determine if things happen when they shouldn't or things don't happen when they should. It is oriented to 'detection'.
Testing software is operating the software under controlled conditions, to (1) verify that it behaves “as specified”; (2) to detect errors, and (3) to validate that what has been specified is what the user actually wanted. Verification is the checking or testing of items, including software, for conformance and consistency by evaluating the results against pre-specified requirements. Error Detection: Testing should intentionally attempt to make things go wrong to determine if things happen when they shouldn’t or things don’t happen when they should. Validation looks at the system correctness – i.e. is the process of checking that what has been specified is what the user actually wanted. The purpose of inspection is trying to find defects and problems mostly in documents such as test plans, specifications, test cases, coding etc. It helps to find the problems and report it but not to fix it. It is one of the most cost effective methods of software quality. There might be different numbers of people can join the inspections but normally one moderator, one reader and one note taker are mandatory.
In other words, validation checks to see if we are building what the customer wants/needs, and verification checks to see if we are building that system correctly. Both verification and validation are necessary, but different components of any testing activity. The definition of testing according to the ANSI/IEEE 1059 standard is that testing is the process of analyzing a software item to detect the differences between existing and required conditions (that is defects/errors/bugs) and to evaluate the features of the software item. The purpose of testing is verification, validation and error detection in order to find problems – and the purpose of finding those problems is to get them fixed. Quality Assurance makes sure the project will be completed based on the previously agreed specifications, standards and functionality required without defects and possible problems. It monitors and tries to improve the development process from the beginning of the project to ensure this. It is oriented to "prevention".
A primary purpose for testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be uncovered and corrected. This is a non-trivial pursuit. Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions but can only establish that it does not function properly under specific conditions. The scope of software testing often includes examination of code as well as execution of that code in various environments and conditions as well as examining the aspects of code: does it do what it is supposed to do and do what it needs to do. In the current culture of software development, a testing organization may be separate from the development team. There are various roles for testing team members. Information derived from software testing may be used to correct the process by which software is developed.
Software testing is oriented to "detection". It's examining a system or an application under controlled conditions. It's intentionally making things go wrong when they should not and things happen when they should not. Software Testing is an empirical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, with respect to the context in which it is intended to operate. This includes, but is not limited to, the process of executing a program or application with the intent of finding software bugs. Testing involves operation of a system or application under controlled conditions and evaluating the results (eg, 'if the user is in interface A of the application while using hardware B, and does C, then D should happen'). The controlled conditions should include both normal and abnormal conditions. Testing should intentionally attempt to make things go wrong to determine if things happen when they shouldn't or things don't happen when they should. It is oriented to 'detection'.
Testing software is operating the software under controlled conditions, to (1) verify that it behaves “as specified”; (2) to detect errors, and (3) to validate that what has been specified is what the user actually wanted. Verification is the checking or testing of items, including software, for conformance and consistency by evaluating the results against pre-specified requirements. Error Detection: Testing should intentionally attempt to make things go wrong to determine if things happen when they shouldn’t or things don’t happen when they should. Validation looks at the system correctness – i.e. is the process of checking that what has been specified is what the user actually wanted. The purpose of inspection is trying to find defects and problems mostly in documents such as test plans, specifications, test cases, coding etc. It helps to find the problems and report it but not to fix it. It is one of the most cost effective methods of software quality. There might be different numbers of people can join the inspections but normally one moderator, one reader and one note taker are mandatory.
In other words, validation checks to see if we are building what the customer wants/needs, and verification checks to see if we are building that system correctly. Both verification and validation are necessary, but different components of any testing activity. The definition of testing according to the ANSI/IEEE 1059 standard is that testing is the process of analyzing a software item to detect the differences between existing and required conditions (that is defects/errors/bugs) and to evaluate the features of the software item. The purpose of testing is verification, validation and error detection in order to find problems – and the purpose of finding those problems is to get them fixed. Quality Assurance makes sure the project will be completed based on the previously agreed specifications, standards and functionality required without defects and possible problems. It monitors and tries to improve the development process from the beginning of the project to ensure this. It is oriented to "prevention".
A primary purpose for testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be uncovered and corrected. This is a non-trivial pursuit. Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions but can only establish that it does not function properly under specific conditions. The scope of software testing often includes examination of code as well as execution of that code in various environments and conditions as well as examining the aspects of code: does it do what it is supposed to do and do what it needs to do. In the current culture of software development, a testing organization may be separate from the development team. There are various roles for testing team members. Information derived from software testing may be used to correct the process by which software is developed.
94. Receptionist
A receptionist is a person in an office/administrative support position. The work is usually performed in a waiting area such as a lobby or front office desk of an organization or business. The title "receptionist" is attributed to the person who is specifically employed by an organization to greet any visitors, patients, or clients. A receptionist is usually expected to have a high school diploma or the equivalent, but a receptionist may also possess a vocational certificate/diploma in business and office administration. Although a post secondary degree is not normally required for this position, some receptionists may hold four year university degrees in a variety of majors. Some receptionists may even hold advanced degrees. A receptionist controls access to executives and other staff, answers questions, schedules appointments, and handles other interpersonal interactions. He or she is literally the face of the business.
Computer skills including proficiency with word processing, spreadsheet and database software including extensive Windows 2000 and Microsoft Office applications experience essential. Proven ability to be organized, detail oriented and accurate when working under deadlines. Excellent written and oral communication skills essential. Proven ability to maintain confidentiality when dealing with sensitive information. Past experience in settings where providing customer service was critical is important. Strong personal commitment to VEIC’s mission and values. Internal- Work is normally performed in climate controlled office environment, where exposure to conditions of extreme heat/cold, poor ventilation, fumes and gases is very limited. Noise level is moderate and includes sounds of normal office equipment (computers, telephones, etc.). No known environmental hazards are encountered in normal performance of job duties. External- Normal functions do not routinely require travel. Travel to special events and/or off site meetings required periodically.
While many persons working as receptionists continue in that position throughout their careers, some receptionists may advance to other administrative jobs such as customer service representative, dispatcher, interviewers, secretary, production assistant, personal assistant, Marketing and executive assistant. In smaller businesses, such as doctor's or lawyer's office, a receptionist may also be the office manager who is charged with a diversity of middle management level business operations. When receptionists leave the job, they often enter other career fields such as sales and marketing, public relations or other media occupations. The advancement of office automation has eliminated some receptionists' jobs. For example, a telephone call could be answered by an automated attendant. However, a receptionist who possesses strong office/technical skills and who is also adept in courtesy, tact and diplomacy is still considered an asset to a company's business image, and is still very much in demand in the business world.
In offices which only network with other businesses, as might be the case with a wholesaler, a receptionist is still a vital member of the team. He or she is expected to be a friendly face for companies which might want to do business, place orders, or cooperate on projects. The receptionist will manage schedules for the staff; make appointments, schedule meetings, and answer queries from other businesses in the course of a day's work. A good receptionist can be a difficult thing to find. Receptionists must be skilled at multitasking and remaining cheerful and courteous at all times, even when extremely frustrated. They must also be good at quickly reading people and their needs, determining, for example, whether someone should really be allowed to meet with a company executive. In addition to being good at managing the public, a receptionist has to be on top of the staff of the business that he or she works for, ensuring that people have the most current information about their schedules.
A receptionist is a person in an office/administrative support position. The work is usually performed in a waiting area such as a lobby or front office desk of an organization or business. The title "receptionist" is attributed to the person who is specifically employed by an organization to greet any visitors, patients, or clients. A receptionist is usually expected to have a high school diploma or the equivalent, but a receptionist may also possess a vocational certificate/diploma in business and office administration. Although a post secondary degree is not normally required for this position, some receptionists may hold four year university degrees in a variety of majors. Some receptionists may even hold advanced degrees. A receptionist controls access to executives and other staff, answers questions, schedules appointments, and handles other interpersonal interactions. He or she is literally the face of the business.
Computer skills including proficiency with word processing, spreadsheet and database software including extensive Windows 2000 and Microsoft Office applications experience essential. Proven ability to be organized, detail oriented and accurate when working under deadlines. Excellent written and oral communication skills essential. Proven ability to maintain confidentiality when dealing with sensitive information. Past experience in settings where providing customer service was critical is important. Strong personal commitment to VEIC’s mission and values. Internal- Work is normally performed in climate controlled office environment, where exposure to conditions of extreme heat/cold, poor ventilation, fumes and gases is very limited. Noise level is moderate and includes sounds of normal office equipment (computers, telephones, etc.). No known environmental hazards are encountered in normal performance of job duties. External- Normal functions do not routinely require travel. Travel to special events and/or off site meetings required periodically.
While many persons working as receptionists continue in that position throughout their careers, some receptionists may advance to other administrative jobs such as customer service representative, dispatcher, interviewers, secretary, production assistant, personal assistant, Marketing and executive assistant. In smaller businesses, such as doctor's or lawyer's office, a receptionist may also be the office manager who is charged with a diversity of middle management level business operations. When receptionists leave the job, they often enter other career fields such as sales and marketing, public relations or other media occupations. The advancement of office automation has eliminated some receptionists' jobs. For example, a telephone call could be answered by an automated attendant. However, a receptionist who possesses strong office/technical skills and who is also adept in courtesy, tact and diplomacy is still considered an asset to a company's business image, and is still very much in demand in the business world.
In offices which only network with other businesses, as might be the case with a wholesaler, a receptionist is still a vital member of the team. He or she is expected to be a friendly face for companies which might want to do business, place orders, or cooperate on projects. The receptionist will manage schedules for the staff; make appointments, schedule meetings, and answer queries from other businesses in the course of a day's work. A good receptionist can be a difficult thing to find. Receptionists must be skilled at multitasking and remaining cheerful and courteous at all times, even when extremely frustrated. They must also be good at quickly reading people and their needs, determining, for example, whether someone should really be allowed to meet with a company executive. In addition to being good at managing the public, a receptionist has to be on top of the staff of the business that he or she works for, ensuring that people have the most current information about their schedules.
93. SQL Server
SQL Server is a Microsoft product used to manage and store information. Technically, SQL Server is a “relational database management system” (RDMS). Broken apart, this term means two things. First, that data stored inside SQL Server will be housed in a “relational database”, and second, that SQL Server is an entire “management system”, not just a database. SQL itself stands for Structured Query Language. This is the language used to manage and administer the database server. One of the key improvements in Microsoft SQL Server 2005 is the new management suite, SQL Server Management Studio (SMSS), which has many enhancements over the previous SQL Server Enterprise Manager. If you are a hoster who wants to enable the highest functionality of database administration for your customers, you can use SSMS to manage their databases.
SQL Server Management Studio Express is a slightly less functional tool that is a free download for customers. It provides much of the same functionality for database administration as SSMS without the server-specific capabilities. In most cases, end customers don't have permissions to use the server-side functionality of SSMS, because they normally only have rights to administer their database. Windows-based Hosting encourages hosters to operate in the most secure way possible; however, business and customer requirements often dictate flexibility in what you offer customers. If you decide to offer direct access, consider recommending that your customers download the SQL Server Management Studio Express tool. It is easily available and free. The full SSMS toolset is only provided with SQL Server, so getting customer access to the tool without having SQL Server 2005 is complicated.
The Microsoft Solution for Windows-based Hosting recommends against leaving SQL Server management ports (UDP 1434 and TCP 1433) exposed to the Internet. Therefore, we recommend Terminal Service access to a host where SSMS is installed. This is usually not an issue for dedicated servers, as the customer administrators may have access. Terminal Services can be used if a separate SQL Server administrative machine with SSMS installed is created. Multiple customers can use Terminal Services to access this server. This option is more costly as it requires additional hardware and Terminal Services client licenses.
Although not recommended, some service providers will decide not to close the ports. If your customers or service offerings require open ports, consider one of the following options: Port Authorization — Require specific authorization to the port prior to allowing SSMS to connect. This may mean a separate logon is required prior to opening SSMS for the customer. Fixed IP Port Authorization — Lock the SQL Server ports down to a specific list of Customer IP addresses. Many customers may not have fixed IP addresses, so this really is applicable to those customers that have fixed IP addresses. Port Reassignment — Change the SQL Server ports to some other unused port for a specific customer. This is an intermediate step, and requires more configuration on your part for your firewall, as well as customer configuration of their SSMS tool.
SQL Server also allows stored procedures to be defined. Stored procedures are parameterized T-SQL queries that are stored in the server itself (and not issued by the client application as is the case with general queries). Stored procedures can accept values sent by the client as input parameters, and send back results as output parameters. They can also call other stored procedures, and can be selectively provided access to. Unlike other queries, stored procedures have an associated name, which is used at runtime to resolve into the actual queries. Also because the code need not be sent from the client every time (as it can be accessed by name), it reduces network traffic and somewhat improves performance. Execution plans for stored procedures are also cached as necessary.
SQL Server is a Microsoft product used to manage and store information. Technically, SQL Server is a “relational database management system” (RDMS). Broken apart, this term means two things. First, that data stored inside SQL Server will be housed in a “relational database”, and second, that SQL Server is an entire “management system”, not just a database. SQL itself stands for Structured Query Language. This is the language used to manage and administer the database server. One of the key improvements in Microsoft SQL Server 2005 is the new management suite, SQL Server Management Studio (SMSS), which has many enhancements over the previous SQL Server Enterprise Manager. If you are a hoster who wants to enable the highest functionality of database administration for your customers, you can use SSMS to manage their databases.
SQL Server Management Studio Express is a slightly less functional tool that is a free download for customers. It provides much of the same functionality for database administration as SSMS without the server-specific capabilities. In most cases, end customers don't have permissions to use the server-side functionality of SSMS, because they normally only have rights to administer their database. Windows-based Hosting encourages hosters to operate in the most secure way possible; however, business and customer requirements often dictate flexibility in what you offer customers. If you decide to offer direct access, consider recommending that your customers download the SQL Server Management Studio Express tool. It is easily available and free. The full SSMS toolset is only provided with SQL Server, so getting customer access to the tool without having SQL Server 2005 is complicated.
The Microsoft Solution for Windows-based Hosting recommends against leaving SQL Server management ports (UDP 1434 and TCP 1433) exposed to the Internet. Therefore, we recommend Terminal Service access to a host where SSMS is installed. This is usually not an issue for dedicated servers, as the customer administrators may have access. Terminal Services can be used if a separate SQL Server administrative machine with SSMS installed is created. Multiple customers can use Terminal Services to access this server. This option is more costly as it requires additional hardware and Terminal Services client licenses.
Although not recommended, some service providers will decide not to close the ports. If your customers or service offerings require open ports, consider one of the following options: Port Authorization — Require specific authorization to the port prior to allowing SSMS to connect. This may mean a separate logon is required prior to opening SSMS for the customer. Fixed IP Port Authorization — Lock the SQL Server ports down to a specific list of Customer IP addresses. Many customers may not have fixed IP addresses, so this really is applicable to those customers that have fixed IP addresses. Port Reassignment — Change the SQL Server ports to some other unused port for a specific customer. This is an intermediate step, and requires more configuration on your part for your firewall, as well as customer configuration of their SSMS tool.
SQL Server also allows stored procedures to be defined. Stored procedures are parameterized T-SQL queries that are stored in the server itself (and not issued by the client application as is the case with general queries). Stored procedures can accept values sent by the client as input parameters, and send back results as output parameters. They can also call other stored procedures, and can be selectively provided access to. Unlike other queries, stored procedures have an associated name, which is used at runtime to resolve into the actual queries. Also because the code need not be sent from the client every time (as it can be accessed by name), it reduces network traffic and somewhat improves performance. Execution plans for stored procedures are also cached as necessary.
92. TCP/IP
TCP/IP is a name given to the collection (or suite) of networking protocols that have been used to construct the global Internet. The protocols are also referred to as the DoD (dee-oh-dee) or Arpanet protocol suite because their early development was funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the US Department of Defense (DoD). The TCP/IP name is taken from two of the fundamental protocols in the collection, IP and TCP. Other core protocols in the suite are UDP and ICMP. These protocols work together to provide a basic networking framework that is used by many different application protocols, each tuned to achieving a particular goal. TCP/IP protocols are not used only on the Internet. They are also widely used to build private networks, called internets (spelled with a small 'i'), that may or may not be connected to the global Internet (spelled with a capital 'I'). An internet that is used exclusively by one organization is sometimes called an intranet. All of the protocols in the TCP/IP suite are defined by documents called Requests for Comments (RFC's). An important difference between TCP/IP RFC's and other (say, IEEE or ITU) networking standards is that RFC's are freely available online.
RFC's can be composed and submitted for approval by anyone. Standards RFC's are often the product of many weeks or months of discussion between interested parties designated as working groups, during which time drafts of the proposed RFC are continually updated and made available for comment. These discussions typically take place on open mailing lists which welcome input from all quarters. The RFC approval process is managed by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) based on recommendations from the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) which is a prime mover in the formation of working groups focused on strategic TCP/IP issues. You can find out more about IESG and IETF activities from the IETF home page. Not all RFC's specify TCP/IP standards. Some RFC's contain background information, some provide hints for managing an internet, and some document protocol weaknesses in the hope that they might be addressed by future standards and some are entirely humorous.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides a reliable byte-stream transfer service between two endpoints on an internet. TCP depends on IP to move packets around the network on its behalf. IP is inherently unreliable, so TCP protects against data loss, data corruption, packet reordering and data duplication by adding checksums and sequence numbers to transmitted data and, on the receiving side, sending back packets that acknowledge the receipt of data. Before sending data across the network, TCP establishes a connection with the destination via an exchange of management packets. The connection is destroyed, again via an exchange of management packets, when the application that was using TCP indicates that no more data will be transferred. In OSI terms, TCP is a Connection-Oriented Acknowledged Transport protocol.
Internet Protocol (IP) is the central, unifying protocol in the TCP/IP suite. It provides the basic delivery mechanism for packets of data sent between all systems on an internet, regardless of whether the systems are in the same room or on opposite sides of the world. All other protocols in the TCP/IP suite depend on IP to carry out the fundamental function of moving packets across the internet. In terms of the OSI networking model, IP provides a Connectionless Unacknowledged Network Service, which means that its attitude to data packets can be characterized as "send and forget". IP does not guarantee to actually deliver the data to the destination, nor does it guarantee that the data will be delivered undamaged, nor does it guarantee that data packets will be delivered to the destination in the order in which they were sent by the source, nor does it guarantee that only one copy of the data will be delivered to the destination.
TCP/IP is a name given to the collection (or suite) of networking protocols that have been used to construct the global Internet. The protocols are also referred to as the DoD (dee-oh-dee) or Arpanet protocol suite because their early development was funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the US Department of Defense (DoD). The TCP/IP name is taken from two of the fundamental protocols in the collection, IP and TCP. Other core protocols in the suite are UDP and ICMP. These protocols work together to provide a basic networking framework that is used by many different application protocols, each tuned to achieving a particular goal. TCP/IP protocols are not used only on the Internet. They are also widely used to build private networks, called internets (spelled with a small 'i'), that may or may not be connected to the global Internet (spelled with a capital 'I'). An internet that is used exclusively by one organization is sometimes called an intranet. All of the protocols in the TCP/IP suite are defined by documents called Requests for Comments (RFC's). An important difference between TCP/IP RFC's and other (say, IEEE or ITU) networking standards is that RFC's are freely available online.
RFC's can be composed and submitted for approval by anyone. Standards RFC's are often the product of many weeks or months of discussion between interested parties designated as working groups, during which time drafts of the proposed RFC are continually updated and made available for comment. These discussions typically take place on open mailing lists which welcome input from all quarters. The RFC approval process is managed by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) based on recommendations from the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) which is a prime mover in the formation of working groups focused on strategic TCP/IP issues. You can find out more about IESG and IETF activities from the IETF home page. Not all RFC's specify TCP/IP standards. Some RFC's contain background information, some provide hints for managing an internet, and some document protocol weaknesses in the hope that they might be addressed by future standards and some are entirely humorous.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides a reliable byte-stream transfer service between two endpoints on an internet. TCP depends on IP to move packets around the network on its behalf. IP is inherently unreliable, so TCP protects against data loss, data corruption, packet reordering and data duplication by adding checksums and sequence numbers to transmitted data and, on the receiving side, sending back packets that acknowledge the receipt of data. Before sending data across the network, TCP establishes a connection with the destination via an exchange of management packets. The connection is destroyed, again via an exchange of management packets, when the application that was using TCP indicates that no more data will be transferred. In OSI terms, TCP is a Connection-Oriented Acknowledged Transport protocol.
Internet Protocol (IP) is the central, unifying protocol in the TCP/IP suite. It provides the basic delivery mechanism for packets of data sent between all systems on an internet, regardless of whether the systems are in the same room or on opposite sides of the world. All other protocols in the TCP/IP suite depend on IP to carry out the fundamental function of moving packets across the internet. In terms of the OSI networking model, IP provides a Connectionless Unacknowledged Network Service, which means that its attitude to data packets can be characterized as "send and forget". IP does not guarantee to actually deliver the data to the destination, nor does it guarantee that the data will be delivered undamaged, nor does it guarantee that data packets will be delivered to the destination in the order in which they were sent by the source, nor does it guarantee that only one copy of the data will be delivered to the destination.
91. Chartered Accountant (CA)
A CA is a professional accountant who has met very high standards for professional knowledge, judgment and integrity. The designation is earned through training and practical experience obtained while employed with a firm of Chartered Accountants engaged in public practice or with the Office of the Auditor General. The program includes a formal education program with a national Uniform Final Examination. Chartered Accountant (CA) is the title used by members of certain professional accountancy associations in the British Commonwealth countries and Ireland. The term chartered comes from the Royal Charter granted to the world's first professional body of accountants upon their establishment in 1854. Chartered Accountants work in all fields of business and finance. Some are engaged in public practice work, others work in the private sector and some are employed by government bodies.
The CA designation offers considerable flexibility in choosing your career path and your place of residence. Opportunities are available in public practice, education, industry, and government. All Chartered Accountants have experience in public practice, since a period of practical experience with an approved training office is required before becoming a Chartered Accountant. The large majority of these training offices are Public Accounting firms. The Office of the Auditor General is the other training office. A Chartered Accountant, with his or her expertise in business, accounting and administration, experience in public practice, and educational background, is much sought after to fill a large variety of positions in industry.
There are many employment opportunities for a Chartered Accountant in all levels of government service. Various federal and provincial departments and publicly funded organizations regularly recruit Chartered Accountants for such positions as treasurers, auditors, senior financial officers, financial management officers and financial analysts. A Chartered Accountant who is attracted to the field of education finds the CA designation highly useful. Chartered Accountants often instruct specialized courses at universities. Chartered Accountants are prominent in the Commerce and Business Administration faculties of Canadian universities, and others serve in administrative posts within this sector.
In India, the profession of chartered accountancy is regulated by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, which was established by Parliament under the Chartered Accountants Act of 1949. The ICAI is responsible for examinations and licensing of it members. ICAI is the second largest body of Professional Accountants in the world with nearby 150,000 registered members. Members are awarded the CA designation. The Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 was passed on May 1. The term Chartered Accountant came to be used in place of Indian Registered Accountants. In this case, therefore, the term "Chartered" does not relate to a Royal Charter as in the case of the UK or Australia, as there is no Royal Charter in the Republic of India. A person shall be awarded the CA after passing the relevant examinations and completion of three and a half years of articleship training (apprenticeship). This is to ensure that trainees have a mix of theoretical and practical training before they become members.
A CA is a professional accountant who has met very high standards for professional knowledge, judgment and integrity. The designation is earned through training and practical experience obtained while employed with a firm of Chartered Accountants engaged in public practice or with the Office of the Auditor General. The program includes a formal education program with a national Uniform Final Examination. Chartered Accountant (CA) is the title used by members of certain professional accountancy associations in the British Commonwealth countries and Ireland. The term chartered comes from the Royal Charter granted to the world's first professional body of accountants upon their establishment in 1854. Chartered Accountants work in all fields of business and finance. Some are engaged in public practice work, others work in the private sector and some are employed by government bodies.
The CA designation offers considerable flexibility in choosing your career path and your place of residence. Opportunities are available in public practice, education, industry, and government. All Chartered Accountants have experience in public practice, since a period of practical experience with an approved training office is required before becoming a Chartered Accountant. The large majority of these training offices are Public Accounting firms. The Office of the Auditor General is the other training office. A Chartered Accountant, with his or her expertise in business, accounting and administration, experience in public practice, and educational background, is much sought after to fill a large variety of positions in industry.
There are many employment opportunities for a Chartered Accountant in all levels of government service. Various federal and provincial departments and publicly funded organizations regularly recruit Chartered Accountants for such positions as treasurers, auditors, senior financial officers, financial management officers and financial analysts. A Chartered Accountant who is attracted to the field of education finds the CA designation highly useful. Chartered Accountants often instruct specialized courses at universities. Chartered Accountants are prominent in the Commerce and Business Administration faculties of Canadian universities, and others serve in administrative posts within this sector.
In India, the profession of chartered accountancy is regulated by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, which was established by Parliament under the Chartered Accountants Act of 1949. The ICAI is responsible for examinations and licensing of it members. ICAI is the second largest body of Professional Accountants in the world with nearby 150,000 registered members. Members are awarded the CA designation. The Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 was passed on May 1. The term Chartered Accountant came to be used in place of Indian Registered Accountants. In this case, therefore, the term "Chartered" does not relate to a Royal Charter as in the case of the UK or Australia, as there is no Royal Charter in the Republic of India. A person shall be awarded the CA after passing the relevant examinations and completion of three and a half years of articleship training (apprenticeship). This is to ensure that trainees have a mix of theoretical and practical training before they become members.
90. Linux
Linux is a freely available, open source, Unix-like operating system. Written originally for the PC by Linus Torvalds, with the help of many other developers across the internet, Linux now runs on multiple hardware platforms, from the smallest to the largest, and serves a wide variety of needs from servers to movie-making to running businesses to user desktops. Linux (often pronounced LIH-nuhks with a short "i") is a Unix-like operating system that was designed to provide personal computer users a free or very low-cost operating system comparable to traditional and usually more expensive UNIX systems. Linux has a reputation as a very efficient and fast-performing system. Linux's kernel (the central part of the operating system) was developed by Linus Torvalds at the University of Helsinki in Finland. To complete the operating system, Torvalds and other team members made use of system components developed by members of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project.
Linux also refers to the operating system. The kernel alone isn't enough to provide a functional computer system; it provides the foundation, and the operating system adds the tools to make the system usable. As an operating system, Linux consists of the kernel, plus an extensive set of libraries, compilers and debuggers, system utilities and programs, as well as one or more command shells. In other words, the operating system provides the tools for programming and for managing the system. Most of the tools were developed by the GNU project of the Free Software Foundation (FSF), and they provide enhanced versions of the traditional UNIX equivalents. Some others came from BSD Unix, developed originally at the University of California at Berkeley.
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and FORTRAN. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. Most distributions also include support for Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are C# via the Mono project, sponsored by Novell, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe.
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use. Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on the most diverse range of computer architectures: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers. Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.
Linux is a freely available, open source, Unix-like operating system. Written originally for the PC by Linus Torvalds, with the help of many other developers across the internet, Linux now runs on multiple hardware platforms, from the smallest to the largest, and serves a wide variety of needs from servers to movie-making to running businesses to user desktops. Linux (often pronounced LIH-nuhks with a short "i") is a Unix-like operating system that was designed to provide personal computer users a free or very low-cost operating system comparable to traditional and usually more expensive UNIX systems. Linux has a reputation as a very efficient and fast-performing system. Linux's kernel (the central part of the operating system) was developed by Linus Torvalds at the University of Helsinki in Finland. To complete the operating system, Torvalds and other team members made use of system components developed by members of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project.
Linux also refers to the operating system. The kernel alone isn't enough to provide a functional computer system; it provides the foundation, and the operating system adds the tools to make the system usable. As an operating system, Linux consists of the kernel, plus an extensive set of libraries, compilers and debuggers, system utilities and programs, as well as one or more command shells. In other words, the operating system provides the tools for programming and for managing the system. Most of the tools were developed by the GNU project of the Free Software Foundation (FSF), and they provide enhanced versions of the traditional UNIX equivalents. Some others came from BSD Unix, developed originally at the University of California at Berkeley.
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and FORTRAN. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. Most distributions also include support for Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are C# via the Mono project, sponsored by Novell, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe.
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use. Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on the most diverse range of computer architectures: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers. Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.
89. Telnet
Telnet, which stands for Telecommunications Network, is a protocol that provides a way for users (or clients) to connect to multi-user computers (or servers) on the Internet, whether in the next building or across the other side of the world. In most cases, users use Telnet to communicate with a remote login service. Telnet (Telecommunication network) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area network (LAN) connections. It was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15 and standardized as IETF STD 8, one of the first Internet standards. Typically, Telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a remote machine. The term telnet also refers to software which implements the client part of the protocol. Telnet clients are available for virtually all computer platforms. Most network equipment and OSes with a TCP/IP stack support some kind of Telnet service server for their remote configuration (including ones based on Windows NT). Because of security issues with Telnet, its use has waned in favor of SSH for remote access.
"To telnet" is also used as a verb, meaning to establish an interactive connection with the Telnet protocol. For example, a common directive might be: "To change your password, telnet to the server, login and run the passwd command." Most often, a user will be telnetting to a Unix-like server system or a network device such as a router and obtain a login prompt to a command line text interface or a character-based full-screen manager. The Telnet program runs on your computer and connects your PC to a server on the network. You can then enter commands through the Telnet program and they will be executed as if you were entering them directly on the server console. This enables you to control the server and communicate with other servers on the network. To start a Telnet session, you must log in to a server by entering a valid username and password. Telnet is a common way to remotely control Web servers.
The term telnet also refers to software which implements the client part of the protocol. TELNET clients have been available on most UNIX systems for many years and are available for virtually all platforms. Most network equipment and OSs with a TCP/IP stack support some kind of TELNET service server for their remote configuration (including ones based on Windows NT). Recently, Secure Shell has begun to dominate remote access for Unix-based machines. Most often, a user will be telneting to a unix-like server system or a simple network device such as a switch. For example, a user might "telnet in from home to check his mail at school". In doing so, he would be using a telnet client to connect from his computer to one of his servers. Once the connection is established, he would then log in with his account information and execute operating system commands remotely on that computer, such as ls or cd. On many systems, the client may also be used to make interactive raw-TCP sessions.
On the Internet, the ability to connect with another machine is made possible by the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which enables two machines to transmit data back and forth in a manner coherent to the operating systems of each device, and the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides a unique, 32-bit address for each machine connected to the network. The telecommunications application built over these capabilities provides the local terminal with the means to emulate a terminal compatible with the remote computer. The telnet protocol gives you the ability to connect to a machine, by giving commands and instructions interactively to that machine, thus creating an interactive connection. In such a case, the local system becomes transparent to the user, who gets the feeling that he is connected directly to the remote computer. The commands typed by the user are transmitted directly to the remote machine and the response from the remote machine is displayed on the user’s monitor screen. An interactive connection is also known as remote login.
Telnet, which stands for Telecommunications Network, is a protocol that provides a way for users (or clients) to connect to multi-user computers (or servers) on the Internet, whether in the next building or across the other side of the world. In most cases, users use Telnet to communicate with a remote login service. Telnet (Telecommunication network) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area network (LAN) connections. It was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15 and standardized as IETF STD 8, one of the first Internet standards. Typically, Telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a remote machine. The term telnet also refers to software which implements the client part of the protocol. Telnet clients are available for virtually all computer platforms. Most network equipment and OSes with a TCP/IP stack support some kind of Telnet service server for their remote configuration (including ones based on Windows NT). Because of security issues with Telnet, its use has waned in favor of SSH for remote access.
"To telnet" is also used as a verb, meaning to establish an interactive connection with the Telnet protocol. For example, a common directive might be: "To change your password, telnet to the server, login and run the passwd command." Most often, a user will be telnetting to a Unix-like server system or a network device such as a router and obtain a login prompt to a command line text interface or a character-based full-screen manager. The Telnet program runs on your computer and connects your PC to a server on the network. You can then enter commands through the Telnet program and they will be executed as if you were entering them directly on the server console. This enables you to control the server and communicate with other servers on the network. To start a Telnet session, you must log in to a server by entering a valid username and password. Telnet is a common way to remotely control Web servers.
The term telnet also refers to software which implements the client part of the protocol. TELNET clients have been available on most UNIX systems for many years and are available for virtually all platforms. Most network equipment and OSs with a TCP/IP stack support some kind of TELNET service server for their remote configuration (including ones based on Windows NT). Recently, Secure Shell has begun to dominate remote access for Unix-based machines. Most often, a user will be telneting to a unix-like server system or a simple network device such as a switch. For example, a user might "telnet in from home to check his mail at school". In doing so, he would be using a telnet client to connect from his computer to one of his servers. Once the connection is established, he would then log in with his account information and execute operating system commands remotely on that computer, such as ls or cd. On many systems, the client may also be used to make interactive raw-TCP sessions.
On the Internet, the ability to connect with another machine is made possible by the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which enables two machines to transmit data back and forth in a manner coherent to the operating systems of each device, and the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides a unique, 32-bit address for each machine connected to the network. The telecommunications application built over these capabilities provides the local terminal with the means to emulate a terminal compatible with the remote computer. The telnet protocol gives you the ability to connect to a machine, by giving commands and instructions interactively to that machine, thus creating an interactive connection. In such a case, the local system becomes transparent to the user, who gets the feeling that he is connected directly to the remote computer. The commands typed by the user are transmitted directly to the remote machine and the response from the remote machine is displayed on the user’s monitor screen. An interactive connection is also known as remote login.
88. Mutual Fund
A Mutual Fund is a body corporate that pools the savings of a number of investors and invests the same in a variety of different financial instruments, or securities. The income earned through these investments and the capital appreciations realized by the scheme are shared by its unit holders in proportion to the number of units owned by them. Mutual funds can thus be considered as financial intermediaries in the investment business that collect funds from the public and invest on behalf of the investors. The losses and gains accrue to the investors only. The Investment objectives outlined by a Mutual Fund in its prospectus are binding on the Mutual Fund scheme. The investment objectives specify the class of securities a Mutual Fund can invest in. Mutual Funds invest in various asset classes like equity, bonds, debentures, commercial paper and government securities.
Professional Management: Your money is managed by experienced fund managers using who are experts in their field, after much solid research and in-depth study. Constant monitoring: Your investments are monitored on an ongoing basis for best returns. Research: A through study is made before investing. Market conditions, global trends, industry growth predictions, sector future, Company profile, financials, and growth potential everything is considered. Liquidity: Open-ended mutual funds are priced daily and are always willing to buy back units from investors. This means that investors can sell their investments in mutual fund anytime without worrying about finding a buyer at the right price. Tax Efficiency* the dividends are tax-free in the hands of the investor. Also Investments for over 12 months qualify for long-term capital gains, which are currently exempt from tax. For Resident Indians there is no TDS on redemption of the units under the Indian Income Tax Act, 1961.
The performance of a scheme is reflected in its net asset value (NAV) which is disclosed on daily basis in case of open-ended schemes and on weekly basis in case of close-ended schemes. The NAVs of mutual funds are required to be published in newspapers. The NAVs are also available on the web sites of mutual funds. All mutual funds are also required to put their NAVs on the web site of Association of Mutual Funds in India (AMFI) http://www.amfiindia.com/ and thus the investors can access NAVs of all mutual funds at one place. The mutual funds are also required to publish their performance in the form of half-yearly results which also include their returns/yields over a period of time i.e. last six months, 1 year, 3 years, 5 years and since inception of schemes. Investors can also look into other details like percentage of expenses of total assets as these have an affect on the yield and other useful information in the same half-yearly format. The mutual funds are also required to send annual report or abridged annual report to the unit holders at the end of the year.
Almost all the mutual funds have their own web sites. Investors can also access the NAVs, half-yearly results and portfolios of all mutual funds at the web site of Association of mutual funds in India (AMFI) www.amfiindia.com. AMFI has also published useful literature for the investors. Investors can log on to the web site of SEBI www.sebi.gov.in and go to "Mutual Funds" section for information on SEBI regulations and guidelines, data on mutual funds, draft offer documents filed by mutual funds, addresses of mutual funds, etc. Also, in the annual reports of SEBI available on the web site, a lot of information on mutual funds is given. There are a number of other web sites which give a lot of information of various schemes of mutual funds including yields over a period of time. Many newspapers also publish useful information on mutual funds on daily and weekly basis. Investors may approach their agents and distributors to guide them in this regard.
A Mutual Fund is a body corporate that pools the savings of a number of investors and invests the same in a variety of different financial instruments, or securities. The income earned through these investments and the capital appreciations realized by the scheme are shared by its unit holders in proportion to the number of units owned by them. Mutual funds can thus be considered as financial intermediaries in the investment business that collect funds from the public and invest on behalf of the investors. The losses and gains accrue to the investors only. The Investment objectives outlined by a Mutual Fund in its prospectus are binding on the Mutual Fund scheme. The investment objectives specify the class of securities a Mutual Fund can invest in. Mutual Funds invest in various asset classes like equity, bonds, debentures, commercial paper and government securities.
Professional Management: Your money is managed by experienced fund managers using who are experts in their field, after much solid research and in-depth study. Constant monitoring: Your investments are monitored on an ongoing basis for best returns. Research: A through study is made before investing. Market conditions, global trends, industry growth predictions, sector future, Company profile, financials, and growth potential everything is considered. Liquidity: Open-ended mutual funds are priced daily and are always willing to buy back units from investors. This means that investors can sell their investments in mutual fund anytime without worrying about finding a buyer at the right price. Tax Efficiency* the dividends are tax-free in the hands of the investor. Also Investments for over 12 months qualify for long-term capital gains, which are currently exempt from tax. For Resident Indians there is no TDS on redemption of the units under the Indian Income Tax Act, 1961.
The performance of a scheme is reflected in its net asset value (NAV) which is disclosed on daily basis in case of open-ended schemes and on weekly basis in case of close-ended schemes. The NAVs of mutual funds are required to be published in newspapers. The NAVs are also available on the web sites of mutual funds. All mutual funds are also required to put their NAVs on the web site of Association of Mutual Funds in India (AMFI) http://www.amfiindia.com/ and thus the investors can access NAVs of all mutual funds at one place. The mutual funds are also required to publish their performance in the form of half-yearly results which also include their returns/yields over a period of time i.e. last six months, 1 year, 3 years, 5 years and since inception of schemes. Investors can also look into other details like percentage of expenses of total assets as these have an affect on the yield and other useful information in the same half-yearly format. The mutual funds are also required to send annual report or abridged annual report to the unit holders at the end of the year.
Almost all the mutual funds have their own web sites. Investors can also access the NAVs, half-yearly results and portfolios of all mutual funds at the web site of Association of mutual funds in India (AMFI) www.amfiindia.com. AMFI has also published useful literature for the investors. Investors can log on to the web site of SEBI www.sebi.gov.in and go to "Mutual Funds" section for information on SEBI regulations and guidelines, data on mutual funds, draft offer documents filed by mutual funds, addresses of mutual funds, etc. Also, in the annual reports of SEBI available on the web site, a lot of information on mutual funds is given. There are a number of other web sites which give a lot of information of various schemes of mutual funds including yields over a period of time. Many newspapers also publish useful information on mutual funds on daily and weekly basis. Investors may approach their agents and distributors to guide them in this regard.
87. Data warehousing
Data warehouse is a subject-oriented database where data are associated to a single organizational process (such as Product Sales), often called entity. A Data warehouse is integrated with various source databases (part of ERPs or other systems) and data warehousing has enormous strategic implications for business intelligence. Our consultants will model a powerful knowledge management tool to organize enterprise organizational processes. We call data warehouse or data mart enterprise organizational processes entities. A data warehouse or data marts give a subject oriented view of one particular entity. This view may give to the enterprise a competitive advantage.
A data warehouse is a relational database that is designed for query and analysis rather than for transaction processing. It usually contains historical data derived from transaction data, but can include data from other sources. Data warehouses separate analysis workload from transaction workload and enable an organization to consolidate data from several sources. In addition to a relational database, a data warehouse environment can include an extraction, transportation, transformation, and loading (ETL) solution, online analytical processing (OLAP) and data mining capabilities, client analysis tools, and other applications that manage the process of gathering data and delivering it to business users.
There is different type of data warehousing architecture: Complex data warehouse systems, often called Open Warehouse Solution Framework, made for large corporations and meant for processing large amount of historical data. Data marts, miniature data warehouses or partitioned subsets of larger data warehouse systems, often called department databases (a sales division may build its own datamarts by using sales related data). Operational Data Stores (ODSs), small OLAP datamarts, with a very much reduced amount of historical data, which may be useful for single individuals within the organization
Architecture, in the context of an organization's data warehousing efforts, is a conceptualization of how the data warehouse is built. There is no right or wrong architecture. The worthiness of the architecture can be judged in how the conceptualization aids in the building, maintenance, and usage of the data warehouse. One possible simple conceptualization of data warehouse architecture consists of the following interconnected layers: Operational database layer: The source data for the data warehouse - An organization's ERP systems fall into this layer.
Informational access layer: The data accessed for reporting and analyzing and the tools for reporting and analyzing data - Business intelligence tools fall into this layer. And the Inmon-Kimball differences about design methodology, discussed later in this article, have to do with this layer. Data access layer: The interface between the operational and informational access layer - Tools to extract, transform, load data into the warehouse fall into this layer. Metadata layer: The data directory - This is usually more detailed than an operational system data directory. There are dictionaries for the entire warehouse and sometimes dictionaries for the data that can be accessed by a particular reporting and analysis tool.
Data warehouse is a subject-oriented database where data are associated to a single organizational process (such as Product Sales), often called entity. A Data warehouse is integrated with various source databases (part of ERPs or other systems) and data warehousing has enormous strategic implications for business intelligence. Our consultants will model a powerful knowledge management tool to organize enterprise organizational processes. We call data warehouse or data mart enterprise organizational processes entities. A data warehouse or data marts give a subject oriented view of one particular entity. This view may give to the enterprise a competitive advantage.
A data warehouse is a relational database that is designed for query and analysis rather than for transaction processing. It usually contains historical data derived from transaction data, but can include data from other sources. Data warehouses separate analysis workload from transaction workload and enable an organization to consolidate data from several sources. In addition to a relational database, a data warehouse environment can include an extraction, transportation, transformation, and loading (ETL) solution, online analytical processing (OLAP) and data mining capabilities, client analysis tools, and other applications that manage the process of gathering data and delivering it to business users.
There is different type of data warehousing architecture: Complex data warehouse systems, often called Open Warehouse Solution Framework, made for large corporations and meant for processing large amount of historical data. Data marts, miniature data warehouses or partitioned subsets of larger data warehouse systems, often called department databases (a sales division may build its own datamarts by using sales related data). Operational Data Stores (ODSs), small OLAP datamarts, with a very much reduced amount of historical data, which may be useful for single individuals within the organization
Architecture, in the context of an organization's data warehousing efforts, is a conceptualization of how the data warehouse is built. There is no right or wrong architecture. The worthiness of the architecture can be judged in how the conceptualization aids in the building, maintenance, and usage of the data warehouse. One possible simple conceptualization of data warehouse architecture consists of the following interconnected layers: Operational database layer: The source data for the data warehouse - An organization's ERP systems fall into this layer.
Informational access layer: The data accessed for reporting and analyzing and the tools for reporting and analyzing data - Business intelligence tools fall into this layer. And the Inmon-Kimball differences about design methodology, discussed later in this article, have to do with this layer. Data access layer: The interface between the operational and informational access layer - Tools to extract, transform, load data into the warehouse fall into this layer. Metadata layer: The data directory - This is usually more detailed than an operational system data directory. There are dictionaries for the entire warehouse and sometimes dictionaries for the data that can be accessed by a particular reporting and analysis tool.
86. Telecommunication
Telecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication. In modern times, this process almost always involves the sending of electromagnetic waves by electronic transmitters but in earlier years it may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums or semaphore lines. Typically, a basic telecommunications system would consist of a computer or terminal on each end, communication equipment for sending and receiving data, and a communication channel connecting the two users. Appropriate communications software is also necessary to manage the transmission of data between computers.
Since the 1960s, telecommunications development has been rapid and wide reaching. The development of dial modem technology accelerated the rate during the 1980s. Facsimile transmission also enjoyed rapid growth during this time. The 1990s have seen the greatest advancement in telecommunications. It is predicted that computing performance will double every eighteen months. In addition, it has been estimated that the power of the computer has doubled thirty-two times since World War II (With row, 1997). The rate of advancement in computer technology shows no signs of slowing. To illustrate the computer's rapid growth, Ronald Brown, former U.S. secretary of commerce, reported that only fifty thousand computers existed in the world in 1975, whereas, by 1995, it was estimated that more than fifty thousand computers were sold every ten hours (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1995).
Electronic mail (e-mail) is a message transmitted from one person to another through computerized channels. Both the sender and receiver must have access to on-line services if they are not connected to the same network. E-mail is now one of the most frequently used types of telecommunication. Facsimile (fax) equipment transmits a digitized exact image of a document over telephone lines. At the receiving end, the fax machine converts the digitized data back into its original form. Voice mail is similar to an answering machine in that it permits a caller to leave a voice message in a voice mailbox. Messages are digitized so the caller's message can be stored on a disk. Videoconferencing involves the use of computers, television cameras, and communications software and equipment. This equipment makes it possible to conduct electronic meetings while the participants are at different locations. The Internet is a continuously evolving global network of computer networks that facilitates access to information on thousands of topics. The Internet is utilized by millions of people daily.
An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e. analogous to another time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. Analog is usually thought of in an electrical context; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals. A digital system uses discrete (discontinuous) values, usually but not always symbolized numerically (hence called "digital") to represent information for input, processing, transmission, storage, etc. By contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of values to represent information. Although digital representations are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and other measurements of continuous systems. Optics is the study of the behavior and properties of light including its interactions with matter and its detection by instruments.
Telecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication. In modern times, this process almost always involves the sending of electromagnetic waves by electronic transmitters but in earlier years it may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums or semaphore lines. Typically, a basic telecommunications system would consist of a computer or terminal on each end, communication equipment for sending and receiving data, and a communication channel connecting the two users. Appropriate communications software is also necessary to manage the transmission of data between computers.
Since the 1960s, telecommunications development has been rapid and wide reaching. The development of dial modem technology accelerated the rate during the 1980s. Facsimile transmission also enjoyed rapid growth during this time. The 1990s have seen the greatest advancement in telecommunications. It is predicted that computing performance will double every eighteen months. In addition, it has been estimated that the power of the computer has doubled thirty-two times since World War II (With row, 1997). The rate of advancement in computer technology shows no signs of slowing. To illustrate the computer's rapid growth, Ronald Brown, former U.S. secretary of commerce, reported that only fifty thousand computers existed in the world in 1975, whereas, by 1995, it was estimated that more than fifty thousand computers were sold every ten hours (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1995).
Electronic mail (e-mail) is a message transmitted from one person to another through computerized channels. Both the sender and receiver must have access to on-line services if they are not connected to the same network. E-mail is now one of the most frequently used types of telecommunication. Facsimile (fax) equipment transmits a digitized exact image of a document over telephone lines. At the receiving end, the fax machine converts the digitized data back into its original form. Voice mail is similar to an answering machine in that it permits a caller to leave a voice message in a voice mailbox. Messages are digitized so the caller's message can be stored on a disk. Videoconferencing involves the use of computers, television cameras, and communications software and equipment. This equipment makes it possible to conduct electronic meetings while the participants are at different locations. The Internet is a continuously evolving global network of computer networks that facilitates access to information on thousands of topics. The Internet is utilized by millions of people daily.
An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e. analogous to another time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. Analog is usually thought of in an electrical context; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals. A digital system uses discrete (discontinuous) values, usually but not always symbolized numerically (hence called "digital") to represent information for input, processing, transmission, storage, etc. By contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of values to represent information. Although digital representations are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and other measurements of continuous systems. Optics is the study of the behavior and properties of light including its interactions with matter and its detection by instruments.
85. Appraisal
A valuation of property (i.e. real estate, a business, an antique) by the estimate of an authorized person. In order to be a valid appraisal, the authorized person will have a designation from a regulatory body governing the jurisdiction the appraiser operates within. Typically, appraisals are done on property before a bank approves a mortgage. Appraisals also may be done on other assets, such as jewelry or a business. The person conducting the appraisal is called an appraiser. Reasoning and understanding of one’s emotional reaction becomes important for future appraisals as well. The important aspect of the appraisal theory is that it accounts for individual variances of emotional reactions to the same event.
The term `Appraisal' is used as a cover-all term to encompass all evaluative uses of language, including those by which speakers/writers adopt particular value positions or stances and by which they negotiate these stances with either actual or potential respondents. Appraisals are typically used either for taxation purposes or to determine a possible selling price for the property in question. The appraiser can use any number of valuation methods in order to determine the appropriate value to assign, including the current market value of similar properties, quality of property and valuation models.
Appraisal theory is the idea that emotions are extracted from our evaluations (appraisals) of events that cause specific reactions in different people. Essentially, our appraisal of a situation causes an emotional, or affective, response that is going to be based on that appraisal. An example of this is going on a first date. If the date is perceived as positive, one might feel happiness, joy, giddiness, excitement, and/or anticipation, because they have appraised this event as one that could have positive long term effects, i.e. starting a new relationship, engagement, or even marriage. On the other hand, if the date is perceived negatively, then our emotions, as a result, might include dejection, sadness, emptiness, or fear.
Performance appraisal, also known as employee appraisal, is a method by which the job performance of an employee is evaluated (generally in terms of quality, quantity, cost and time). Performance appraisal is a part of career development. Performance appraisals are regular reviews of employee performance within organizations. A common approach to assessing performance is to use a numerical or scalar rating system whereby managers are asked to score an individual against a number of objectives/attributes. In some companies, employees receive assessments from their manager, peers, subordinates and customers while also performing a self assessment. This is known as 360° appraisal.
A valuation of property (i.e. real estate, a business, an antique) by the estimate of an authorized person. In order to be a valid appraisal, the authorized person will have a designation from a regulatory body governing the jurisdiction the appraiser operates within. Typically, appraisals are done on property before a bank approves a mortgage. Appraisals also may be done on other assets, such as jewelry or a business. The person conducting the appraisal is called an appraiser. Reasoning and understanding of one’s emotional reaction becomes important for future appraisals as well. The important aspect of the appraisal theory is that it accounts for individual variances of emotional reactions to the same event.
The term `Appraisal' is used as a cover-all term to encompass all evaluative uses of language, including those by which speakers/writers adopt particular value positions or stances and by which they negotiate these stances with either actual or potential respondents. Appraisals are typically used either for taxation purposes or to determine a possible selling price for the property in question. The appraiser can use any number of valuation methods in order to determine the appropriate value to assign, including the current market value of similar properties, quality of property and valuation models.
Appraisal theory is the idea that emotions are extracted from our evaluations (appraisals) of events that cause specific reactions in different people. Essentially, our appraisal of a situation causes an emotional, or affective, response that is going to be based on that appraisal. An example of this is going on a first date. If the date is perceived as positive, one might feel happiness, joy, giddiness, excitement, and/or anticipation, because they have appraised this event as one that could have positive long term effects, i.e. starting a new relationship, engagement, or even marriage. On the other hand, if the date is perceived negatively, then our emotions, as a result, might include dejection, sadness, emptiness, or fear.
Performance appraisal, also known as employee appraisal, is a method by which the job performance of an employee is evaluated (generally in terms of quality, quantity, cost and time). Performance appraisal is a part of career development. Performance appraisals are regular reviews of employee performance within organizations. A common approach to assessing performance is to use a numerical or scalar rating system whereby managers are asked to score an individual against a number of objectives/attributes. In some companies, employees receive assessments from their manager, peers, subordinates and customers while also performing a self assessment. This is known as 360° appraisal.
84. Database Administrator
A Database Administrator (DBA) is crucial to any organization that has mission-critical information stored in its databases. DBAs are responsible for the design and administration of databases, and for ensuring that the highest level of data integrity is maintained. Database maintenance includes performance tuning, monitoring the logs for errors, performing backup and recovery procedures as well as tasks associated with the data stored in the database, which include data transfer, data replication and data cleansing. Essentially, the main role of a database administrator has to do with overseeing the installation and ongoing function of software on a system designed for use by a number of users. There are several specific responsibilities that the typical database administrator will perform in just about any corporate environment.
The duties of a database administrator vary and depend on the job description, corporate and Information Technology (IT) policies and the technical features and capabilities of the DBMS being administered. They nearly always include disaster recovery (backups and testing of backups), performance analysis and tuning, data dictionary maintenance, and some database design. Some of the roles of the DBA may include: Installation of new software — it is primarily the job of the DBA to install new versions of DBMS software, application software, and other software related to DBMS administration. It is important that the DBA or other IS staffing member’s test this new software before it is moved into a production environment.
Configuration of hardware and software with the system administrator — in many cases the system software can only be accessed by the system administrator. In this case, the DBA must work closely with the system administrator to perform software installations, and to configure hardware and software so that it functions optimally with the DBMS. Security administration — one of the main duties of the DBA is to monitor and administer DBMS security. This involves adding and removing users, administering quotas, auditing, and checking for security problems. Data analysis — The DBA will frequently be called on to analyze the data stored in the database and to make recommendations relating to performance and efficiency of that data storage. This might relate to the more effective use of indexes, enabling "Parallel Query" execution, or other DBMS specific features.
With just about all software, new releases and upgrades are made available from time to time. The database administrator will be aware of any new versions or upgrades to existing versions that could improve the efficiency of a currently installed database. Generally, a database administrator is authorized to upload free upgrades and install them at will. In the event that a new version is available, the administrator may work with others in the company to determine if the cost of replacing the existing database software is worth the investment. In more recent years, the role of the database administrator has expanded in some companies. The administrator may be called upon to take a basic design and customize the fields or functions to more effectively serve the needs of the corporation. While these types of projects are more commonly associated with a database analyst or designer, it is not uncommon for a database administrator in a small company to assume these roles.
A Database Administrator (DBA) is crucial to any organization that has mission-critical information stored in its databases. DBAs are responsible for the design and administration of databases, and for ensuring that the highest level of data integrity is maintained. Database maintenance includes performance tuning, monitoring the logs for errors, performing backup and recovery procedures as well as tasks associated with the data stored in the database, which include data transfer, data replication and data cleansing. Essentially, the main role of a database administrator has to do with overseeing the installation and ongoing function of software on a system designed for use by a number of users. There are several specific responsibilities that the typical database administrator will perform in just about any corporate environment.
The duties of a database administrator vary and depend on the job description, corporate and Information Technology (IT) policies and the technical features and capabilities of the DBMS being administered. They nearly always include disaster recovery (backups and testing of backups), performance analysis and tuning, data dictionary maintenance, and some database design. Some of the roles of the DBA may include: Installation of new software — it is primarily the job of the DBA to install new versions of DBMS software, application software, and other software related to DBMS administration. It is important that the DBA or other IS staffing member’s test this new software before it is moved into a production environment.
Configuration of hardware and software with the system administrator — in many cases the system software can only be accessed by the system administrator. In this case, the DBA must work closely with the system administrator to perform software installations, and to configure hardware and software so that it functions optimally with the DBMS. Security administration — one of the main duties of the DBA is to monitor and administer DBMS security. This involves adding and removing users, administering quotas, auditing, and checking for security problems. Data analysis — The DBA will frequently be called on to analyze the data stored in the database and to make recommendations relating to performance and efficiency of that data storage. This might relate to the more effective use of indexes, enabling "Parallel Query" execution, or other DBMS specific features.
With just about all software, new releases and upgrades are made available from time to time. The database administrator will be aware of any new versions or upgrades to existing versions that could improve the efficiency of a currently installed database. Generally, a database administrator is authorized to upload free upgrades and install them at will. In the event that a new version is available, the administrator may work with others in the company to determine if the cost of replacing the existing database software is worth the investment. In more recent years, the role of the database administrator has expanded in some companies. The administrator may be called upon to take a basic design and customize the fields or functions to more effectively serve the needs of the corporation. While these types of projects are more commonly associated with a database analyst or designer, it is not uncommon for a database administrator in a small company to assume these roles.
83. Motivation
Motivation is a desire to achieve a goal, combined with the energy to work towards that goal. Students who are motivated have a desire to undertake their study and complete the requirements of their course. Motivation is the set of reasons that determines one to engage in a particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but, theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.
Sometimes a distinction is made between positive and negative motivation. Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and optimism about the tasks that you are involved in. Negative motivation involves undertaking tasks because there will be undesirable outcomes, eg. Failing a subject, if tasks are not completed. Almost all students will experience positive and negative motivation, as well as loss of motivation, at different times during their life at University.
Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity, such as a hobby, without obvious external incentives. This form of motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace. In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer. That is, the athlete competes for the love of the sport. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic motivations. In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is often extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.
Self motivation is the ability to satisfy a desire, expectation, or goal without being influenced to do so by another person. Self motivation is the key to a paradigm shift or behaviour changes amongst individuals. Many motivation courses or peak performance training mainly address this aspect but the cumulative effect is temporary and the key factor always is the presence of a constant reminder. As mentioned in these ways of life, self motivation is the act of calling an eternal "energy". By learning how to focus one's mind on his tasks, one can achieve much more with less strain than if one were unfocused, or distracted. A familiar term, "mind over matter", comes into play here; if the mind is in control of itself, the body will have better control over its own realm. So, in short, self motivation is finding a way of transforming the energy within into energy without, allowing for one to accomplish difficult tasks, or express ideas more thoroughly.
Motivation is a desire to achieve a goal, combined with the energy to work towards that goal. Students who are motivated have a desire to undertake their study and complete the requirements of their course. Motivation is the set of reasons that determines one to engage in a particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but, theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.
Sometimes a distinction is made between positive and negative motivation. Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and optimism about the tasks that you are involved in. Negative motivation involves undertaking tasks because there will be undesirable outcomes, eg. Failing a subject, if tasks are not completed. Almost all students will experience positive and negative motivation, as well as loss of motivation, at different times during their life at University.
Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity, such as a hobby, without obvious external incentives. This form of motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace. In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer. That is, the athlete competes for the love of the sport. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic motivations. In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is often extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.
Self motivation is the ability to satisfy a desire, expectation, or goal without being influenced to do so by another person. Self motivation is the key to a paradigm shift or behaviour changes amongst individuals. Many motivation courses or peak performance training mainly address this aspect but the cumulative effect is temporary and the key factor always is the presence of a constant reminder. As mentioned in these ways of life, self motivation is the act of calling an eternal "energy". By learning how to focus one's mind on his tasks, one can achieve much more with less strain than if one were unfocused, or distracted. A familiar term, "mind over matter", comes into play here; if the mind is in control of itself, the body will have better control over its own realm. So, in short, self motivation is finding a way of transforming the energy within into energy without, allowing for one to accomplish difficult tasks, or express ideas more thoroughly.
82. Operating System
An operation system is the primary software installed on you computer. IE; Dos, Linux, Unix, Windows Etc. The Operating System (OS) has the drivers for the hardware and the basics software to run any additional software you choose to install. An operating system is interface between the user and the computer. Provides a UI or user interface whether it's a graphical interface (GUI) or a command line interface (CLI), manages files and folders, manages applications or programs, and manages the hardware. When a computer boots up the BIOS runs a POST test, but then it does not know what to do. What it should be doing is loading an operating system and handing control of the machine to it. After having found the different pieces of hardware, and initialized them, the BIOS will need to load the operating system so that files can be created, text input via the keyboard and displayed via the monitor.
The operating system can be loaded from any of the following places: ROM - Some of the early computers such as the BBC Micro, Commodore 64 or Sinclair Spectrum had their operating system loaded into a ROM attached to the motherboard. This meant that the operating system loaded very quickly. Floppy Disk - A bootable floppy can be created, from which the BIOS can load the operating system. Once loaded into the memory the operating system can then be used to load applications from other floppy disks. Hard Disk - When installed onto a hard disk the operating system can be loaded from it very quickly and applications run.
Network Server - The operating system can be loaded on to a network server. The machine can then use a ROM on the network card to load the operating system from the network server. When this is done, generally the operating system is saved as an image of a floppy disk, which is loaded into memory and run as if it were on a floppy disk. First loading a small disk image and then using this image to load the rest of the operating system can load even operating systems like Windows 95 from a network server. CD-ROM - If the BIOS support it, and most of the modern BIOS do, an operating system can be loaded from a CD-ROM. This method of loading an operating system is very often used to install an operating system onto a hard disk. Only a small version of the operating system is loaded from the CD-ROM into the computer's memory, just enough to get started, the rest is loaded from the CD-ROM.
In the case of the ROM, the BIOS must know how to discover the ROM and find the start of the routine that loads or runs the operating system. This works for the Network Server as well, as the BIOS discovers the ROM on the network card and runs a routine in it that will send information across the network and load the operating system coming back from the server. In order to load an operating system from any kind of disk, the BIOS must have enough intelligence to be able to load at least one sector of a disk into memory. The sector will contain a set of instructions, which will allow the machine to load the rest of the operating system. There are many operating systems, which will run on different types of machine. UNIX is probably the earliest, with many variations.
By this definition, many common operating systems can be lumped together and considered to be the same. OS/2 and Windows are the same. UNIX, Linux, and BSD are the same. The minimum distance between two distinct operating systems is probably that between Plan 9 and UNIX. Despite their differences, both were created by the same person to achieve the exact same goals. And despite the time interval between UNIX and Plan 9, it is obvious that the designers felt that many of the UNIX design decisions were still good. This all goes to show that Plan 9 and UNIX are as close as two operating systems can ever get while remaining distinct.
An operation system is the primary software installed on you computer. IE; Dos, Linux, Unix, Windows Etc. The Operating System (OS) has the drivers for the hardware and the basics software to run any additional software you choose to install. An operating system is interface between the user and the computer. Provides a UI or user interface whether it's a graphical interface (GUI) or a command line interface (CLI), manages files and folders, manages applications or programs, and manages the hardware. When a computer boots up the BIOS runs a POST test, but then it does not know what to do. What it should be doing is loading an operating system and handing control of the machine to it. After having found the different pieces of hardware, and initialized them, the BIOS will need to load the operating system so that files can be created, text input via the keyboard and displayed via the monitor.
The operating system can be loaded from any of the following places: ROM - Some of the early computers such as the BBC Micro, Commodore 64 or Sinclair Spectrum had their operating system loaded into a ROM attached to the motherboard. This meant that the operating system loaded very quickly. Floppy Disk - A bootable floppy can be created, from which the BIOS can load the operating system. Once loaded into the memory the operating system can then be used to load applications from other floppy disks. Hard Disk - When installed onto a hard disk the operating system can be loaded from it very quickly and applications run.
Network Server - The operating system can be loaded on to a network server. The machine can then use a ROM on the network card to load the operating system from the network server. When this is done, generally the operating system is saved as an image of a floppy disk, which is loaded into memory and run as if it were on a floppy disk. First loading a small disk image and then using this image to load the rest of the operating system can load even operating systems like Windows 95 from a network server. CD-ROM - If the BIOS support it, and most of the modern BIOS do, an operating system can be loaded from a CD-ROM. This method of loading an operating system is very often used to install an operating system onto a hard disk. Only a small version of the operating system is loaded from the CD-ROM into the computer's memory, just enough to get started, the rest is loaded from the CD-ROM.
In the case of the ROM, the BIOS must know how to discover the ROM and find the start of the routine that loads or runs the operating system. This works for the Network Server as well, as the BIOS discovers the ROM on the network card and runs a routine in it that will send information across the network and load the operating system coming back from the server. In order to load an operating system from any kind of disk, the BIOS must have enough intelligence to be able to load at least one sector of a disk into memory. The sector will contain a set of instructions, which will allow the machine to load the rest of the operating system. There are many operating systems, which will run on different types of machine. UNIX is probably the earliest, with many variations.
By this definition, many common operating systems can be lumped together and considered to be the same. OS/2 and Windows are the same. UNIX, Linux, and BSD are the same. The minimum distance between two distinct operating systems is probably that between Plan 9 and UNIX. Despite their differences, both were created by the same person to achieve the exact same goals. And despite the time interval between UNIX and Plan 9, it is obvious that the designers felt that many of the UNIX design decisions were still good. This all goes to show that Plan 9 and UNIX are as close as two operating systems can ever get while remaining distinct.
81. Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules or agreed upon guidelines for communication. When communicating, it is important to agree on how to do so. If one party speaks Indian and one German the communications will most likely fail. If they both agree on a single language, communications will work. On the Internet the set of communications protocols used is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP is actually a collection of various protocols that each has their own special function or purpose. These protocols have been established by international standards bodies and are used in almost all platforms and around the globe to ensure that all devices on the Internet can communicate successfully. For purposes of the MCPP, a communications protocol is the set of rules for information exchange to accomplish pre-defined tasks between a client computer and server computer connected by a network. These rules govern the format, semantics, timing, sequencing and error control messages exchanged over a network.
A protocol is a set of RULES recognized by the Network resources, like Servers, Network Devices like Switches, Hubs, and Routers. Etc. for example HTTP is a protocol that is used for sending HTML web pages. FTP (File Transfer) is a protocol for downloading files over network. If 2 PCs communicate with each other with HTTP rules, they are actually requesting or sending web page files from their hard drives. But if the 2 PCs communicate with their FTP ports using FTP protocol, they are actually requesting or sending normal files e.g. pix from their hard drives to each other. There are many protocols in networking because there are many different types of communication between 2 PCs. HTTP over IE or FTP over download software are 2 very common ones. Just like the rules for transferring goods between 2 countries that's done by two shipping companies. The 2 shipping companies communicate with each other through specific Shipment rules or protocols.
For example, in Java (where protocols are termed interfaces), there is the Comparable interface specifies a method compareTo() which implementing classes should implement. So, this means that a separate sorting method, for example, can sort any object which implements the Comparable interface, without having to know anything about the inner nature of the class (except that two of these objects can be compared by means of compareTo()). The protocol is a description of: the messages that are understood by the object, the arguments that these messages may be supplied with, and the types of results that these messages return, the invariants that are preserved despite modifications to the state of the object, the exceptional situations that will be required to be handled by clients to the object. If the objects are fully encapsulated then the protocol will describe the only way in which objects may be accessed by other objects.
Some programming languages directly support protocols or interfaces (Objective-C, Java, C#, D, Ada, and Logtalk). Older languages may also have features that can support the interface concept, such as abstract base classes with pure virtual functions in C++, or object-oriented features in Perl. Note that functional programming and distributed programming languages have a concept which is also called a protocol, but whose meaning is subtly different (i.e. a specification of allowed exchanges of messages, emphasis on exchanges, not on messages). This difference is due to somewhat different assumptions of functional programming and object-oriented programming paradigms. In particular, the following are also considered as part of a protocol in these languages: The allowed sequences of messages, Restrictions placed on either participant in the communication, Expected effects that will occur as the message is handled.
A protocol is a set of rules or agreed upon guidelines for communication. When communicating, it is important to agree on how to do so. If one party speaks Indian and one German the communications will most likely fail. If they both agree on a single language, communications will work. On the Internet the set of communications protocols used is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP is actually a collection of various protocols that each has their own special function or purpose. These protocols have been established by international standards bodies and are used in almost all platforms and around the globe to ensure that all devices on the Internet can communicate successfully. For purposes of the MCPP, a communications protocol is the set of rules for information exchange to accomplish pre-defined tasks between a client computer and server computer connected by a network. These rules govern the format, semantics, timing, sequencing and error control messages exchanged over a network.
A protocol is a set of RULES recognized by the Network resources, like Servers, Network Devices like Switches, Hubs, and Routers. Etc. for example HTTP is a protocol that is used for sending HTML web pages. FTP (File Transfer) is a protocol for downloading files over network. If 2 PCs communicate with each other with HTTP rules, they are actually requesting or sending web page files from their hard drives. But if the 2 PCs communicate with their FTP ports using FTP protocol, they are actually requesting or sending normal files e.g. pix from their hard drives to each other. There are many protocols in networking because there are many different types of communication between 2 PCs. HTTP over IE or FTP over download software are 2 very common ones. Just like the rules for transferring goods between 2 countries that's done by two shipping companies. The 2 shipping companies communicate with each other through specific Shipment rules or protocols.
For example, in Java (where protocols are termed interfaces), there is the Comparable interface specifies a method compareTo() which implementing classes should implement. So, this means that a separate sorting method, for example, can sort any object which implements the Comparable interface, without having to know anything about the inner nature of the class (except that two of these objects can be compared by means of compareTo()). The protocol is a description of: the messages that are understood by the object, the arguments that these messages may be supplied with, and the types of results that these messages return, the invariants that are preserved despite modifications to the state of the object, the exceptional situations that will be required to be handled by clients to the object. If the objects are fully encapsulated then the protocol will describe the only way in which objects may be accessed by other objects.
Some programming languages directly support protocols or interfaces (Objective-C, Java, C#, D, Ada, and Logtalk). Older languages may also have features that can support the interface concept, such as abstract base classes with pure virtual functions in C++, or object-oriented features in Perl. Note that functional programming and distributed programming languages have a concept which is also called a protocol, but whose meaning is subtly different (i.e. a specification of allowed exchanges of messages, emphasis on exchanges, not on messages). This difference is due to somewhat different assumptions of functional programming and object-oriented programming paradigms. In particular, the following are also considered as part of a protocol in these languages: The allowed sequences of messages, Restrictions placed on either participant in the communication, Expected effects that will occur as the message is handled.
80. Networking
Networking is the concept where many nodes (computers) are connected together, where they can share data, resources, etc. Linking the different group of computers together is called networking. Different groups of computers are connected together through communication media and devices. These communication devices are cable, telephone lines, modems and other resources used in networking. A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other. Examples of networks are the Internet, a wide area network that is the largest to ever exist, or a small home local area network (LAN) with two computers connected with standard networking cables connecting to a network interface card in each computer.
Networking is basically used to share resources such as hardware devices, software programs, data and information. Networking save large amount of time by sharing information among individuals. Electronic mails are efficient way of sending messages from one end to other end. Electronic mail is also called email. It enables us to get information quickly and make decisions and easily send management decisions to other offices. Organizations use standalone computers tend to spend a good deal of time on coping information from one computer another computer.
Peer-to-peer network, computers can act as both servers sharing resources and as clients using the resources. Server-based networks provide centralized control of network resources and rely on server computers to provide security and network administration. A networking switch is the central device in a wired or wireless LAN (local area network). It receives signals from each computer on the network via Ethernet cables in a wired network or radio waves in a wireless LAN. In both cases, the networking switch directs traffic across the LAN, enabling the computers to talk to each other and share resources.
All computers included in the LAN must contain a network interface card (NIC). The card assigns a unique address to the machine in which it is installed. This address is called a MAC (Medium Access Control). A wired NIC accommodates an Ethernet cable, which runs to a port on the back of the networking switch. If the NIC is wireless, the card will feature a small antenna instead of an Ethernet port. The antenna transmits signals to the wireless networking switch, which also bears an antenna rather than ports. Whether wireless or wired, the networking switch acts as a relay, reading traffic packets as they arrive from the various machines and directing the packets to the proper MAC address.
Networking is the concept where many nodes (computers) are connected together, where they can share data, resources, etc. Linking the different group of computers together is called networking. Different groups of computers are connected together through communication media and devices. These communication devices are cable, telephone lines, modems and other resources used in networking. A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other. Examples of networks are the Internet, a wide area network that is the largest to ever exist, or a small home local area network (LAN) with two computers connected with standard networking cables connecting to a network interface card in each computer.
Networking is basically used to share resources such as hardware devices, software programs, data and information. Networking save large amount of time by sharing information among individuals. Electronic mails are efficient way of sending messages from one end to other end. Electronic mail is also called email. It enables us to get information quickly and make decisions and easily send management decisions to other offices. Organizations use standalone computers tend to spend a good deal of time on coping information from one computer another computer.
Peer-to-peer network, computers can act as both servers sharing resources and as clients using the resources. Server-based networks provide centralized control of network resources and rely on server computers to provide security and network administration. A networking switch is the central device in a wired or wireless LAN (local area network). It receives signals from each computer on the network via Ethernet cables in a wired network or radio waves in a wireless LAN. In both cases, the networking switch directs traffic across the LAN, enabling the computers to talk to each other and share resources.
All computers included in the LAN must contain a network interface card (NIC). The card assigns a unique address to the machine in which it is installed. This address is called a MAC (Medium Access Control). A wired NIC accommodates an Ethernet cable, which runs to a port on the back of the networking switch. If the NIC is wireless, the card will feature a small antenna instead of an Ethernet port. The antenna transmits signals to the wireless networking switch, which also bears an antenna rather than ports. Whether wireless or wired, the networking switch acts as a relay, reading traffic packets as they arrive from the various machines and directing the packets to the proper MAC address.
79. Software Engineering
Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is the application of engineering to software. The application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software; that is, the application of engineering to software. If a system behaves like expected at a defined and predictable level of reliability, and does not behave otherwise at a defined and predictable level of reliability, then that system possesses the quality of being engineered, and was probably produced by an engineering process. If your team is capable of making accurate and credible predictions about the performance of your software in deployment, then you are probably practicing some form of software engineering.
The term software engineering first appeared in the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference and was meant to provoke thought regarding the current "software crisis" at the time. Since then, it has continued as a profession and field of study dedicated to creating software that is of higher quality, cheaper, maintainable, and quicker to build. Since the field is still relatively young compared to its sister fields of engineering, there is still much work and debate around what software engineering actually is, and if it deserves the title engineering. It has grown organically out of the limitations of viewing software as just programming. Software development is a term sometimes preferred by practitioners in the industry who view software engineering as too heavy-handed and constrictive to the malleable process of creating software.
Software Engineering describe the systematic steps to be followed for developing a software; just like developing a hardware we follow the rules like it's design pattern, composition etc similarly the software goes through various steps known as "Software Development Life Cycle " or SDLC. This includes phases like requirement gathering and analysis designing, coding & testing, system integration and testing, deployment andMaintenance.
For software engineering to be fully known as a legitimate engineering discipline and a recognized profession, consensus on a core body of knowledge is imperative. This fact is well illustrated by Starr when he defines what can be considered a legitimate discipline and a recognized profession. In his Pulitzer Prize-winning book on the history of the medical profession in the USA, he states that the legitimization of professional authority involves three distinctive claims: first, that the knowledge and competence of the professional have been validated by a community of his or her peers; second, that this consensually validated knowledge rests on rational, scientific grounds; and third, that the professional’s judgment and advice are oriented toward a set of substantive values, such as health. These aspects of legitimacy correspond to the kinds of attributes collegial, cognitive, and moral usually embodied in the term profession.
Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is the application of engineering to software. The application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software; that is, the application of engineering to software. If a system behaves like expected at a defined and predictable level of reliability, and does not behave otherwise at a defined and predictable level of reliability, then that system possesses the quality of being engineered, and was probably produced by an engineering process. If your team is capable of making accurate and credible predictions about the performance of your software in deployment, then you are probably practicing some form of software engineering.
The term software engineering first appeared in the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference and was meant to provoke thought regarding the current "software crisis" at the time. Since then, it has continued as a profession and field of study dedicated to creating software that is of higher quality, cheaper, maintainable, and quicker to build. Since the field is still relatively young compared to its sister fields of engineering, there is still much work and debate around what software engineering actually is, and if it deserves the title engineering. It has grown organically out of the limitations of viewing software as just programming. Software development is a term sometimes preferred by practitioners in the industry who view software engineering as too heavy-handed and constrictive to the malleable process of creating software.
Software Engineering describe the systematic steps to be followed for developing a software; just like developing a hardware we follow the rules like it's design pattern, composition etc similarly the software goes through various steps known as "Software Development Life Cycle " or SDLC. This includes phases like requirement gathering and analysis designing, coding & testing, system integration and testing, deployment andMaintenance.
For software engineering to be fully known as a legitimate engineering discipline and a recognized profession, consensus on a core body of knowledge is imperative. This fact is well illustrated by Starr when he defines what can be considered a legitimate discipline and a recognized profession. In his Pulitzer Prize-winning book on the history of the medical profession in the USA, he states that the legitimization of professional authority involves three distinctive claims: first, that the knowledge and competence of the professional have been validated by a community of his or her peers; second, that this consensually validated knowledge rests on rational, scientific grounds; and third, that the professional’s judgment and advice are oriented toward a set of substantive values, such as health. These aspects of legitimacy correspond to the kinds of attributes collegial, cognitive, and moral usually embodied in the term profession.
78. E-commerce
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce, consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily since the spread of the Internet. A wide variety of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail as well.
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce, consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. So you must be thinking that I like to dig up definitions and digest etymologies and the history of words? Strangely I do! What I quickly realized was that although this massages the brain a little, I loose the value of really knowing unless I strive to truly understand exactly what eCommerce means to my customers. If my ideal customer is anyone who makes up the rapidly growing and profitable SME (Small to Medium Size Enterprise) in South Africa looking to sell products and services on the internet mostly within the B2C (Business to Consumer) arena, then it's important that I know what they think ecommerce is.
Ecommerce involves multiple transactions or the transfer of payment information across a secure Internet connection in exchange for goods and services. Commercial ecommerce represents trade, commercialism, mercantilism and all other business transactions for business, personal or commercial activities that has the sole objective of supplying commodities via an online storefront. Ecommerce is governed by the Department of Commerce, created in 1913, is the federal organization with the United States that promotes and administers domestic and foreign trade. The DOC monitors B2B and B2C ecommerce dealings both online and off-line. It covers a broad range of markets from consumer based retail sites, auctions and peer-to-peer sites, to business exchanges negotiating commodities between corporations. These organizations help to regulate ecommerce operations and corresponding business rules.
Ecommerce has penetrated markets for quite some time in the form of E Data Interchange. EDI requires each supplier and customer to set up a dedicated data link, which provides a cost-effective method for companies to set up multiple, ad-hoc links. This development has lead to the emergence of marketplaces where suppliers and potential customers are brought together to conduct mutually beneficial trade. On the consumer level, electronic commerce is mostly conducted on the World Wide Web. An individual can go online to purchase anything from books or groceries, to expensive items like real estate. Another example would be online banking, i.e. online bill payments, buying stocks, transferring funds from one account to another, and initiating wire payment to another country. All of these activities can be done with a few strokes of the keyboard. On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integrity and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce today.
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce, consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily since the spread of the Internet. A wide variety of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail as well.
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce, consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. So you must be thinking that I like to dig up definitions and digest etymologies and the history of words? Strangely I do! What I quickly realized was that although this massages the brain a little, I loose the value of really knowing unless I strive to truly understand exactly what eCommerce means to my customers. If my ideal customer is anyone who makes up the rapidly growing and profitable SME (Small to Medium Size Enterprise) in South Africa looking to sell products and services on the internet mostly within the B2C (Business to Consumer) arena, then it's important that I know what they think ecommerce is.
Ecommerce involves multiple transactions or the transfer of payment information across a secure Internet connection in exchange for goods and services. Commercial ecommerce represents trade, commercialism, mercantilism and all other business transactions for business, personal or commercial activities that has the sole objective of supplying commodities via an online storefront. Ecommerce is governed by the Department of Commerce, created in 1913, is the federal organization with the United States that promotes and administers domestic and foreign trade. The DOC monitors B2B and B2C ecommerce dealings both online and off-line. It covers a broad range of markets from consumer based retail sites, auctions and peer-to-peer sites, to business exchanges negotiating commodities between corporations. These organizations help to regulate ecommerce operations and corresponding business rules.
Ecommerce has penetrated markets for quite some time in the form of E Data Interchange. EDI requires each supplier and customer to set up a dedicated data link, which provides a cost-effective method for companies to set up multiple, ad-hoc links. This development has lead to the emergence of marketplaces where suppliers and potential customers are brought together to conduct mutually beneficial trade. On the consumer level, electronic commerce is mostly conducted on the World Wide Web. An individual can go online to purchase anything from books or groceries, to expensive items like real estate. Another example would be online banking, i.e. online bill payments, buying stocks, transferring funds from one account to another, and initiating wire payment to another country. All of these activities can be done with a few strokes of the keyboard. On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integrity and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce today.
77. Infrastructure
Infrastructure can be defined as the basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise. It is the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function. The term typically refers to the technical structures that support a society, such as roads, water supply, sewers, power grids, telecommunications, and so forth. Viewed functionally, infrastructure facilitates the production of goods and services; for example, roads enable the transport of raw materials to a factory, and also for the distribution of finished products to markets. In some contexts, the term may also include basic social services such as schools and hospitals. In military parlance, the term refers to the buildings and permanent installations necessary for the support, redeployment, and operation of military forces.
A substructure or underlying foundation; esp., the basic installations and facilities on which the continuance and growth of a community, state, etc. depend, as roads, schools, power plants, transportation and communication systems, etc. Explore the progression of IT systems and find guidance for improving your organization. Infrastructure Optimization serves as a gauge for IT organizations and provides a logical roadmap to progress from reactive to proactive IT service management.
Critical infrastructure is a term used by governments to describe assets that are essential for the functioning of a society and economy. Most commonly associated with the term are facilities for electricity generation, transmission and distribution, gas production, transport and distribution, oil and oil products production, transport and distribution, telecommunication, water supply (drinking water, waste water/sewage, stemming of surface water (e.g. dikes and sluices)), agriculture, food production and distribution, heating (e.g. natural gas, fuel oil, district heating), public health (hospitals, ambulances), transportation systems (fuel supply, railway network, airports, harbours, inland shipping), financial services (banking, clearing), security services (police, military).
The Corporate Services Branch provides support and services for corporate functions such as procurement, IM/IT including the department’s major program management system, called the Shared Information Management System for Infrastructure (SIMSI), human resources, finance, security, planning and administration, and internal audit and evaluation. By working with municipal, provincial and territorial project proponents and the private sector to identify regional and local development priorities and to finance specific infrastructure projects, Infrastructure Canada is helping meet our national social, economic and environmental objectives.
Infrastructure can be defined as the basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise. It is the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function. The term typically refers to the technical structures that support a society, such as roads, water supply, sewers, power grids, telecommunications, and so forth. Viewed functionally, infrastructure facilitates the production of goods and services; for example, roads enable the transport of raw materials to a factory, and also for the distribution of finished products to markets. In some contexts, the term may also include basic social services such as schools and hospitals. In military parlance, the term refers to the buildings and permanent installations necessary for the support, redeployment, and operation of military forces.
A substructure or underlying foundation; esp., the basic installations and facilities on which the continuance and growth of a community, state, etc. depend, as roads, schools, power plants, transportation and communication systems, etc. Explore the progression of IT systems and find guidance for improving your organization. Infrastructure Optimization serves as a gauge for IT organizations and provides a logical roadmap to progress from reactive to proactive IT service management.
Critical infrastructure is a term used by governments to describe assets that are essential for the functioning of a society and economy. Most commonly associated with the term are facilities for electricity generation, transmission and distribution, gas production, transport and distribution, oil and oil products production, transport and distribution, telecommunication, water supply (drinking water, waste water/sewage, stemming of surface water (e.g. dikes and sluices)), agriculture, food production and distribution, heating (e.g. natural gas, fuel oil, district heating), public health (hospitals, ambulances), transportation systems (fuel supply, railway network, airports, harbours, inland shipping), financial services (banking, clearing), security services (police, military).
The Corporate Services Branch provides support and services for corporate functions such as procurement, IM/IT including the department’s major program management system, called the Shared Information Management System for Infrastructure (SIMSI), human resources, finance, security, planning and administration, and internal audit and evaluation. By working with municipal, provincial and territorial project proponents and the private sector to identify regional and local development priorities and to finance specific infrastructure projects, Infrastructure Canada is helping meet our national social, economic and environmental objectives.
76. Medical Billing
Medical billing is the process of submitting and following up on claims to insurance companies in order to receive payment for services rendered by a healthcare provider. The same process is used for most insurance companies, whether they are private companies or government-owned. The billing process is an interaction between a healthcare provider and the insurance company (payer). The interaction begins with the office visit: A doctor or their staff will typically create or update the patient's medical record. This record contains a summary of treatment and demographic information related to the patient. Upon the first visit, the provider will usually give the patient one or more diagnoses in order to better coordinate and streamline his/her care.
In the absence of a definitive diagnosis, the reason for the visit will be cited for the purpose of claims filing. The patient record contains highly personal information: the nature of illness, examination details, medication lists, diagnoses, and suggested treatment. When a patient is seen by a doctor or provider, a claim is coded, billed and processed. It is submitted to an insurance company or federal government agency. Medical billers are good at detail and are well-organized. They may have knowledge or education in data entry, bookkeeping, technical or computer knowledge and work well with people. Although most medical billers work in back offices and don't have a lot of contact with the public.
Medical billing is a complex procedure of billing and collecting professional fees for medical and healthcare services provided to patients. Doing it right requires a broad range of knowledge and understanding of the medical billing process and Health Insurance Company rules. When a physician or healthcare provider renders medical services to a patient they are entitled to be reimbursed. Collecting these moneys due is the medical biller's job. After each healthcare appointment the medical biller reviews the super bill or encounter forms attached to the patient's record to establish which services were provided. Next they re-check the patient's insurance coverage and note the name of the health insurance company. Then they prepare proper invoices and submit the claim.
Medical billers are the ones who organize medical bills and statements, comb through them for errors, negotiate with collection agencies, answer patient's questions about their health-care plans and the office's billing routine, and spend hours on the phone with insurance companies on a client's behalf. Think about the large number of medical specialties, countless medical conditions and diseases, plethora of CPT codes and Medicare rules, the multitude of health insurance companies (payers), and billions of patients everywhere!!!
Medical billing is the process of submitting and following up on claims to insurance companies in order to receive payment for services rendered by a healthcare provider. The same process is used for most insurance companies, whether they are private companies or government-owned. The billing process is an interaction between a healthcare provider and the insurance company (payer). The interaction begins with the office visit: A doctor or their staff will typically create or update the patient's medical record. This record contains a summary of treatment and demographic information related to the patient. Upon the first visit, the provider will usually give the patient one or more diagnoses in order to better coordinate and streamline his/her care.
In the absence of a definitive diagnosis, the reason for the visit will be cited for the purpose of claims filing. The patient record contains highly personal information: the nature of illness, examination details, medication lists, diagnoses, and suggested treatment. When a patient is seen by a doctor or provider, a claim is coded, billed and processed. It is submitted to an insurance company or federal government agency. Medical billers are good at detail and are well-organized. They may have knowledge or education in data entry, bookkeeping, technical or computer knowledge and work well with people. Although most medical billers work in back offices and don't have a lot of contact with the public.
Medical billing is a complex procedure of billing and collecting professional fees for medical and healthcare services provided to patients. Doing it right requires a broad range of knowledge and understanding of the medical billing process and Health Insurance Company rules. When a physician or healthcare provider renders medical services to a patient they are entitled to be reimbursed. Collecting these moneys due is the medical biller's job. After each healthcare appointment the medical biller reviews the super bill or encounter forms attached to the patient's record to establish which services were provided. Next they re-check the patient's insurance coverage and note the name of the health insurance company. Then they prepare proper invoices and submit the claim.
Medical billers are the ones who organize medical bills and statements, comb through them for errors, negotiate with collection agencies, answer patient's questions about their health-care plans and the office's billing routine, and spend hours on the phone with insurance companies on a client's behalf. Think about the large number of medical specialties, countless medical conditions and diseases, plethora of CPT codes and Medicare rules, the multitude of health insurance companies (payers), and billions of patients everywhere!!!
75. Digital Signal Processing
Digital signal processing (DSP) is the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals. DSP and analog signal processing are subsets of signal processing. It has three major subfields: audio signal processing, digital image processing and speech processing. DSP includes subfields like: audio and speech signal processing, sonar and radar signal processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, signal processing for communications, biomedical signal processing, seismic data processing, etc. Since the goal of DSP is usually to measure or filter continuous real-world analog signals, the first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by using an analog to digital converter. Often, the required output signal is another analog output signal, which requires a digital to analog converter.
Even if this process is more complex than analog processing and has a discrete value range, the stability of digital signal processing thanks to error detection and correction and being less vulnerable to noise makes it advantageous over analog signal processing. The introduction of the microprocessor in the late 1970's and early 1980's made it possible for DSP techniques to be used in a much wider range of applications. However, general-purpose microprocessors such as the Intel x86 family are not ideally suited to the numerically-intensive requirements of DSP, and during the 1980's the increasing importance of DSP led several major electronics manufacturers (such as Texas Instruments, Analog Devices and Motorola) to develop Digital Signal Processor chips - specialized microprocessors with architectures designed specifically for the types of operations required in digital signal processing. (Note that the acronym DSP can variously mean Digital Signal Processing, the term used for a wide range of techniques for processing signals digitally, or Digital Signal Processor, a specialized type of microprocessor chip).
Like a general-purpose microprocessor, a DSP is a programmable device, with its own native instruction code. DSP chips are capable of carrying out millions of floating point operations per second, and like their better-known general-purpose cousins, faster and more powerful versions are continually being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within complex "system-on-chip" devices, often containing both analog and digital circuitry. (Note that the acronym DSP can variously mean Digital Signal Processing, the term used for a wide range of techniques for processing signals digitally, or Digital Signal Processor, a specialized type of microprocessor chip). DSP technology is nowadays commonplace in such devices as mobile phones, multimedia computers, video recorders, CD players, hard disc drive controllers and modems, and will soon replace analog circuitry in TV sets and telephones. An important application of DSP is in signal compression and decompression.
Signal compression is used in digital cellular phones to allow a greater number of calls to be handled simultaneously within each local "cell". DSP signal compression technology allows people not only to talk to one another but also to see one another on their computer screens, using small video cameras mounted on the computer monitors, with only a conventional telephone line linking them together. In audio CD systems, DSP technology is used to perform complex error detection and correction on the raw data as it is read from the CD. The major electronics manufacturers have invested heavily in DSP technology. Because they now find application in mass-market products, DSP chips account for a substantial proportion of the world market for electronic devices. Sales amount to billions of dollars annually, and seem likely to continue to increase rapidly.
Digital signal processing (DSP) is the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals. DSP and analog signal processing are subsets of signal processing. It has three major subfields: audio signal processing, digital image processing and speech processing. DSP includes subfields like: audio and speech signal processing, sonar and radar signal processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, signal processing for communications, biomedical signal processing, seismic data processing, etc. Since the goal of DSP is usually to measure or filter continuous real-world analog signals, the first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by using an analog to digital converter. Often, the required output signal is another analog output signal, which requires a digital to analog converter.
Even if this process is more complex than analog processing and has a discrete value range, the stability of digital signal processing thanks to error detection and correction and being less vulnerable to noise makes it advantageous over analog signal processing. The introduction of the microprocessor in the late 1970's and early 1980's made it possible for DSP techniques to be used in a much wider range of applications. However, general-purpose microprocessors such as the Intel x86 family are not ideally suited to the numerically-intensive requirements of DSP, and during the 1980's the increasing importance of DSP led several major electronics manufacturers (such as Texas Instruments, Analog Devices and Motorola) to develop Digital Signal Processor chips - specialized microprocessors with architectures designed specifically for the types of operations required in digital signal processing. (Note that the acronym DSP can variously mean Digital Signal Processing, the term used for a wide range of techniques for processing signals digitally, or Digital Signal Processor, a specialized type of microprocessor chip).
Like a general-purpose microprocessor, a DSP is a programmable device, with its own native instruction code. DSP chips are capable of carrying out millions of floating point operations per second, and like their better-known general-purpose cousins, faster and more powerful versions are continually being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within complex "system-on-chip" devices, often containing both analog and digital circuitry. (Note that the acronym DSP can variously mean Digital Signal Processing, the term used for a wide range of techniques for processing signals digitally, or Digital Signal Processor, a specialized type of microprocessor chip). DSP technology is nowadays commonplace in such devices as mobile phones, multimedia computers, video recorders, CD players, hard disc drive controllers and modems, and will soon replace analog circuitry in TV sets and telephones. An important application of DSP is in signal compression and decompression.
Signal compression is used in digital cellular phones to allow a greater number of calls to be handled simultaneously within each local "cell". DSP signal compression technology allows people not only to talk to one another but also to see one another on their computer screens, using small video cameras mounted on the computer monitors, with only a conventional telephone line linking them together. In audio CD systems, DSP technology is used to perform complex error detection and correction on the raw data as it is read from the CD. The major electronics manufacturers have invested heavily in DSP technology. Because they now find application in mass-market products, DSP chips account for a substantial proportion of the world market for electronic devices. Sales amount to billions of dollars annually, and seem likely to continue to increase rapidly.
74. Frustration
Frustration is an emotional response to circumstances where one is obstructed from arriving at a personal goal. The more important the goal, the greater the frustration. It is comparable to anger and disappointment. Sources of frustration may be internal or external. Internal sources of frustration involve personal deficiencies such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations that prevent one from reaching a goal. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration when one has competing goals that interfere with one another. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside the person such as a blocked road; or conditions linked to the person's actions but not directly such as lack of money, or lack of sexual activity. In psychology, passive-aggressive behavior is a method of dealing with frustration. According to N.E. Miller "frustration produces instigation to a number of different types of response, one of which is instigation to some form of aggression."
Psychological Meaning: If you dream of missing a train, being unable to read an important message, searching in vain for something or failing to convince someone of the truth of an argument, then your dream is expressing deep-set frustrations. You may be concerned that your life is not going in the direction you want or may feel a repressed anger at the stubbornness of the people in your life. It is important that you discover why you feel so frustrated so that you can deal more effectively with its causes.
Mystical Meaning: Dream superstition takes frustrations to mean the opposite- all your plans will succeed. An inability to carry out a contract or perform a term of the contract due to supervening circumstances beyond the parties’ control, such as an event of force majeure. Frustration can be considered problem-response behaviour, and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contend with, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside of their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behaviour (e.g. violent reaction).
The worker who is refused time off to go fishing may "cuss out" his supervisor to his face or behind his back. If he is sufficiently aroused, he may strike out at him with his fists or with the nearest weapon. If the supervisor is not present or the worker's fear of the consequences of direct attack is stronger than his desire to attack, he may transfer his aggression to someone or something else. Taking his frustration out on his family or on some object like his car or his equipment are typical ways of transferring aggression. Another "solution" to frustration is regressive behavior — becoming childish or reverting to earlier and more primitive ways of coping with the goal barrier. Throwing a temper tantrum, bursting into tears, or sulking are examples of regression. Wearing a long face and a worried look are other signs of this method of dealing with frustration.
Frustration is an emotional response to circumstances where one is obstructed from arriving at a personal goal. The more important the goal, the greater the frustration. It is comparable to anger and disappointment. Sources of frustration may be internal or external. Internal sources of frustration involve personal deficiencies such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations that prevent one from reaching a goal. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration when one has competing goals that interfere with one another. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside the person such as a blocked road; or conditions linked to the person's actions but not directly such as lack of money, or lack of sexual activity. In psychology, passive-aggressive behavior is a method of dealing with frustration. According to N.E. Miller "frustration produces instigation to a number of different types of response, one of which is instigation to some form of aggression."
Psychological Meaning: If you dream of missing a train, being unable to read an important message, searching in vain for something or failing to convince someone of the truth of an argument, then your dream is expressing deep-set frustrations. You may be concerned that your life is not going in the direction you want or may feel a repressed anger at the stubbornness of the people in your life. It is important that you discover why you feel so frustrated so that you can deal more effectively with its causes.
Mystical Meaning: Dream superstition takes frustrations to mean the opposite- all your plans will succeed. An inability to carry out a contract or perform a term of the contract due to supervening circumstances beyond the parties’ control, such as an event of force majeure. Frustration can be considered problem-response behaviour, and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contend with, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside of their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behaviour (e.g. violent reaction).
The worker who is refused time off to go fishing may "cuss out" his supervisor to his face or behind his back. If he is sufficiently aroused, he may strike out at him with his fists or with the nearest weapon. If the supervisor is not present or the worker's fear of the consequences of direct attack is stronger than his desire to attack, he may transfer his aggression to someone or something else. Taking his frustration out on his family or on some object like his car or his equipment are typical ways of transferring aggression. Another "solution" to frustration is regressive behavior — becoming childish or reverting to earlier and more primitive ways of coping with the goal barrier. Throwing a temper tantrum, bursting into tears, or sulking are examples of regression. Wearing a long face and a worried look are other signs of this method of dealing with frustration.
73. Marketing Management
Marketing management is a business discipline which is focused on the practical application of marketing techniques and the management of a firm's marketing resources and activities. Marketing managers are often responsible for influencing the level, timing, and composition of customer demand accepted definition of the term. In part, this is because the role of a marketing manager can vary significantly based on a business' size, corporate culture, and industry context. For example, in a large consumer products company, the marketing manager may act as the overall general manager of his or her assigned product. Our starting point for learning about marketing is to begin with the basics and that starts with defining marketing.
Since marketing has been an important part of business for a long time we could consult one of the many hundreds of books written on the subject to locate a definition. Or, as is more the custom today, we could search the Internet to see how marketing is defined. Whether we search print or electronic form we will find that marketing is defined in many different ways. Some definitions focus on marketing in terms of what it means to an organization, such as being the key functional area for generating revenue, while other definitions lean more toward defining marketing in terms of its most visible tasks, such as advertising and creating new products.
There probably is no one best way to define marketing, however, whatever definition is used should have an orientation that focuses on the key to marketing success – customers. At a broader level marketing offers significant benefits to society. These benefits include: Developing products that satisfy needs, including products that enhance society’s quality of life. Creating a competitive environment that helps lower product prices. Developing product distribution systems that offer access to products to a large number of customers and many geographic regions. Building demand for products that require organizations to expand their labor force.
Offering techniques that have the ability to convey messages that change societal behavior in a positive way (e.g., anti-smoking advertising). Henri Fayol considers management consisting of five functions Planning, organizing, leading, co-ordinating and controlling. Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.
Marketing management is a business discipline which is focused on the practical application of marketing techniques and the management of a firm's marketing resources and activities. Marketing managers are often responsible for influencing the level, timing, and composition of customer demand accepted definition of the term. In part, this is because the role of a marketing manager can vary significantly based on a business' size, corporate culture, and industry context. For example, in a large consumer products company, the marketing manager may act as the overall general manager of his or her assigned product. Our starting point for learning about marketing is to begin with the basics and that starts with defining marketing.
Since marketing has been an important part of business for a long time we could consult one of the many hundreds of books written on the subject to locate a definition. Or, as is more the custom today, we could search the Internet to see how marketing is defined. Whether we search print or electronic form we will find that marketing is defined in many different ways. Some definitions focus on marketing in terms of what it means to an organization, such as being the key functional area for generating revenue, while other definitions lean more toward defining marketing in terms of its most visible tasks, such as advertising and creating new products.
There probably is no one best way to define marketing, however, whatever definition is used should have an orientation that focuses on the key to marketing success – customers. At a broader level marketing offers significant benefits to society. These benefits include: Developing products that satisfy needs, including products that enhance society’s quality of life. Creating a competitive environment that helps lower product prices. Developing product distribution systems that offer access to products to a large number of customers and many geographic regions. Building demand for products that require organizations to expand their labor force.
Offering techniques that have the ability to convey messages that change societal behavior in a positive way (e.g., anti-smoking advertising). Henri Fayol considers management consisting of five functions Planning, organizing, leading, co-ordinating and controlling. Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.
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